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作者： tokenpocket钱包下载中文版苹果

2024-03-13 01:58:10

Robot - Wikipedia

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1Summary

2History

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2.1Early beginnings

2.2Remote-controlled systems

2.3Early robots

2.4Modern autonomous robots

3Future development and trends

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3.1New functionalities and prototypes

4Etymology

5Modern robots

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5.1Mobile robot

5.2Industrial robots (manipulating)

5.3Service robot

5.4Educational (interactive) robots

5.5Modular robot

5.6Collaborative robots

6Robots in society

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6.1Autonomy and ethical questions

6.2Military robots

6.3Relationship to unemployment

7Contemporary uses

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7.1General-purpose autonomous robots

7.2Factory robots

7.2.1Car production

7.2.2Packaging

7.2.3Electronics

7.2.4Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)

7.2.4.1Early AGV-style robots

7.2.4.2Interim AGV technologies

7.2.4.3Intelligent AGVs (i-AGVs)

7.3Dirty, dangerous, dull, or inaccessible tasks

7.3.1Space probes

7.3.2Telerobots

7.3.3Automated fruit harvesting machines

7.3.4Domestic robots

7.4Military robots

7.5Mining robots

7.6Healthcare

7.6.1Home automation for the elderly and disabled

7.6.2Pharmacies

7.7Research robots

7.7.1Bionic and biomimetic robots

7.7.2Nanorobots

7.7.3Reconfigurable robots

7.7.4Robotic, mobile laboratory operators

7.7.5Soft-bodied robots

7.7.6Swarm robots

7.7.7Haptic interface robots

7.8Contemporary art and sculpture

8Robots in popular culture

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8.1Literature

8.2Robot competitions

8.3Films

8.4Sex robots

8.5Problems depicted in popular culture

9See also

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9.1Specific robotics concepts

9.2Robotics methods and categories

9.3Specific robots and devices

9.4Other related articles

10Further reading

11References

12External links

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Robot

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically

This article is about mechanical robots. For software agents, see Bot. For other uses of the term, see Robot (disambiguation).

ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005

Articulated welding robots used in a factory are a type of industrial robot.

The quadrupedal military robot Cheetah, an evolution of BigDog (pictured), was clocked as the world's fastest legged robot in 2012, beating the record set by an MIT bipedal robot in 1989.[1]

A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer—capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically.[2] A robot can be guided by an external control device, or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be constructed to evoke human form, but most robots are task-performing machines, designed with an emphasis on stark functionality, rather than expressive aesthetics.

Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from humanoids such as Honda's Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility (ASIMO) and TOSY's TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot (TOPIO) to industrial robots, medical operating robots, patient assist robots, dog therapy robots, collectively programmed swarm robots, UAV drones such as General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, and even microscopic nano robots. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or thought of its own. Autonomous things are expected to proliferate in the future, with home robotics and the autonomous car as some of the main drivers.[3]

The branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots,[4] as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing is robotics. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. These robots have also created a newer branch of robotics: soft robotics.

From the time of ancient civilization, there have been many accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even automata resembling humans and other animals, such as animatronics, designed primarily as entertainment. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age, there appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote-control and wireless remote-control.

The term comes from a Slavic root, robot-, with meanings associated with labor. The word 'robot' was first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 Czech-language play R.U.R. (Rossumovi Univerzální Roboti – Rossum's Universal Robots) by Karel Čapek, though it was Karel's brother Josef Čapek who was the word's true inventor.[5][6][7] Electronics evolved into the driving force of development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in Bristol, England in 1948, as well as Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools in the late 1940s by John T. Parsons and Frank L. Stulen.

The first commercial, digital and programmable robot was built by George Devol in 1954 and was named the Unimate. It was sold to General Motors in 1961 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die casting machines at the Inland Fisher Guide Plant in the West Trenton section of Ewing Township, New Jersey.[8]

Robots have replaced humans[9] in performing repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea. There are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising technological unemployment as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions.[10] The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future.

Summary

Anthropomorphism in robots:KITT (a fictional robot) is mentally anthropomorphic; it thinks like a human.iCub is physically anthropomorphic; it looks like a human.

The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots.[11] There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but there is general agreement among experts, and the public, that robots tend to possess some or all of the following abilities and functions: accept electronic programming, process data or physical perceptions electronically, operate autonomously to some degree, move around, operate physical parts of itself or physical processes, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior, especially behavior which mimics humans or other animals.[12][13] Related to the concept of a robot is the field of synthetic biology, which studies entities whose nature is more comparable to living things than to machines.

History

Main article: History of robots

The idea of automata originates in the mythologies of many cultures around the world. Engineers and inventors from ancient civilizations, including Ancient China,[14] Ancient Greece, and Ptolemaic Egypt,[15] attempted to build self-operating machines, some resembling animals and humans. Early descriptions of automata include the artificial doves of Archytas,[16] the artificial birds of Mozi and Lu Ban,[17] a "speaking" automaton by Hero of Alexandria, a washstand automaton by Philo of Byzantium, and a human automaton described in the Lie Zi.[14]

Early beginnings

Many ancient mythologies, and most modern religions include artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by the Greek god Hephaestus[18] (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay golems of Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend, and Galatea, the mythical statue of Pygmalion that came to life. Since circa 400 BC, myths of Crete include Talos, a man of bronze who guarded the island from pirates.

In ancient Greece, the Greek engineer Ctesibius (c. 270 BC) "applied a knowledge of pneumatics and hydraulics to produce the first organ and water clocks with moving figures."[19]: 2 [20] In the 4th century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called "The Pigeon". Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD), a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water.[21]

Al-Jazari – a musical toy

The 11th century Lokapannatti tells of how the Buddha's relics were protected by mechanical robots (bhuta vahana yanta), from the kingdom of Roma visaya (Rome); until they were disarmed by King Ashoka.[22]

In ancient China, the 3rd-century text of the Lie Zi describes an account of humanoid automata, involving a much earlier encounter between Chinese emperor King Mu of Zhou and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. Yan Shi proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical 'handiwork' made of leather, wood, and artificial organs.[14] There are also accounts of flying automata in the Han Fei Zi and other texts, which attributes the 5th century BC Mohist philosopher Mozi and his contemporary Lu Ban with the invention of artificial wooden birds (ma yuan) that could successfully fly.[17]

Su Song's astronomical clock tower showing the mechanical figurines which chimed the hours In 1066, the Chinese inventor Su Song built a water clock in the form of a tower which featured mechanical figurines which chimed the hours.[23][24][25] His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bumped into little levers that operated percussion instruments. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.[25]

Samarangana Sutradhara, a Sanskrit treatise by Bhoja (11th century), includes a chapter about the construction of mechanical contrivances (automata), including mechanical bees and birds, fountains shaped like humans and animals, and male and female dolls that refilled oil lamps, danced, played instruments, and re-enacted scenes from Hindu mythology.[26][27][28]

13th century Muslim scientist Ismail al-Jazari created several automated devices. He built automated moving peacocks driven by hydropower.[29] He also invented the earliest known automatic gates, which were driven by hydropower,[30] created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate water clocks.[31] One of al-Jazari's humanoid automata was a waitress that could serve water, tea or drinks. The drink was stored in a tank with a reservoir from where the drink drips into a bucket and, after seven minutes, into a cup, after which the waitress appears out of an automatic door serving the drink.[32] Al-Jazari invented a hand washing automaton incorporating a flush mechanism now used in modern flush toilets. It features a female humanoid automaton standing by a basin filled with water. When the user pulls the lever, the water drains and the female automaton refills the basin.[19]

Mark E. Rosheim summarizes the advances in robotics made by Muslim engineers, especially al-Jazari, as follows:Unlike the Greek designs, these Arab examples reveal an interest, not only in dramatic illusion, but in manipulating the environment for human comfort. Thus, the greatest contribution the Arabs made, besides preserving, disseminating and building on the work of the Greeks, was the concept of practical application. This was the key element that was missing in Greek robotic science.[19]: 9

Model of Leonardo's robot with inner workings. Possibly constructed by Leonardo da Vinci around 1495.[33] In the 14th century, the coronation of Richard II of England featured an automata angel.[34]

In Renaissance Italy, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) sketched plans for a humanoid robot around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contained detailed drawings of a mechanical knight now known as Leonardo's robot, able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw.[35] The design was probably based on anatomical research recorded in his Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build it. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, Leonardo da Vinci may have been influenced by the classic automata of al-Jazari.[29]

In Japan, complex animal and human automata were built between the 17th to 19th centuries, with many described in the 18th century Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery, 1796). One such automaton was the karakuri ningyō, a mechanized puppet.[36] Different variations of the karakuri existed: the Butai karakuri, which were used in theatre, the Zashiki karakuri, which were small and used in homes, and the Dashi karakuri which were used in religious festivals, where the puppets were used to perform reenactments of traditional myths and legends.

In France, between 1738 and 1739, Jacques de Vaucanson exhibited several life-sized automatons: a flute player, a pipe player and a duck. The mechanical duck could flap its wings, crane its neck, and swallow food from the exhibitor's hand, and it gave the illusion of digesting its food by excreting matter stored in a hidden compartment.[37] About 30 years later in Switzerland the clockmaker Pierre Jaquet-Droz made several complex mechanical figures that could write and play music. Several of these devices still exist and work.[38]

Remote-controlled systems

The Brennan torpedo, one of the earliest 'guided missiles'

Remotely operated vehicles were demonstrated in the late 19th century in the form of several types of remotely controlled torpedoes. The early 1870s saw remotely controlled torpedoes by John Ericsson (pneumatic), John Louis Lay (electric wire guided), and Victor von Scheliha (electric wire guided).[39]

The Brennan torpedo, invented by Louis Brennan in 1877, was powered by two contra-rotating propellers that were spun by rapidly pulling out wires from drums wound inside the torpedo. Differential speed on the wires connected to the shore station allowed the torpedo to be guided to its target, making it "the world's first practical guided missile".[40] In 1897 the British inventor Ernest Wilson was granted a patent for a torpedo remotely controlled by "Hertzian" (radio) waves[41][42] and in 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a wireless-controlled torpedo that he hoped to sell to the US Navy.[43][44]

In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo demonstrated a radio control system called "Telekino" at the Paris Academy of Sciences,[45] which he wanted to use to control an airship of his own design. He obtained some patents in other countries.[46] Unlike the previous mechanisms, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres developed a system for controlling any mechanical or electrical device with different states of operation.[47]

The transmitter was capable of sending a family of different codewords by means of a binary telegraph signal to the receiver, which was able to set up a different state of operation in the device being used, depending on the codeword. Specifically, it was able to do up to 19 different actions.[48][49]

Archibald Low, known as the "father of radio guidance systems" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote controlled aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket.

Early robots

W. H. Richards with "George", 1932

In 1928, one of the first humanoid robots, Eric, was exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model Engineers Society in London, where it delivered a speech. Invented by W. H. Richards, the robot's frame consisted of an aluminium body of armour with eleven electromagnets and one motor powered by a twelve-volt power source. The robot could move its hands and head and could be controlled through remote control or voice control.[50] Both Eric and his "brother" George toured the world.[51]

Westinghouse Electric Corporation built Televox in 1926; it was a cardboard cutout connected to various devices which users could turn on and off. In 1939, the humanoid robot known as Elektro was debuted at the 1939 New York World's Fair.[52][53] Seven feet tall (2.1 m) and weighing 265 pounds (120.2 kg), it could walk by voice command, speak about 700 words (using a 78-rpm record player), smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and move its head and arms. The body consisted of a steel gear, cam and motor skeleton covered by an aluminum skin. In 1928, Japan's first robot, Gakutensoku, was designed and constructed by biologist Makoto Nishimura.

The German V-1 flying bomb was equipped with systems for automatic guidance and range control, flying on a predetermined course (which could include a 90-degree turn) and entering a terminal dive after a predetermined distance. It was reported as being a 'robot' in contemporary descriptions [54]

Modern autonomous robots

The first electronic autonomous robots with complex behaviour were created by William Grey Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. He wanted to prove that rich connections between a small number of brain cells could give rise to very complex behaviors – essentially that the secret of how the brain worked lay in how it was wired up. His first robots, named Elmer and Elsie, were constructed between 1948 and 1949 and were often described as tortoises due to their shape and slow rate of movement. The three-wheeled tortoise robots were capable of phototaxis, by which they could find their way to a recharging station when they ran low on battery power.

Walter stressed the importance of using purely analogue electronics to simulate brain processes at a time when his contemporaries such as Alan Turing and John von Neumann were all turning towards a view of mental processes in terms of digital computation. His work inspired subsequent generations of robotics researchers such as Rodney Brooks, Hans Moravec and Mark Tilden. Modern incarnations of Walter's turtles may be found in the form of BEAM robotics.[55]

The first digitally operated and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. This ultimately laid the foundations of the modern robotics industry.[56] Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them.[57]

The first palletizing robot was introduced in 1963 by the Fuji Yusoki Kogyo Company.[58] In 1973, a robot with six electromechanically driven axes was patented[59][60][61] by KUKA robotics in Germany, and the programmable universal manipulation arm was invented by Victor Scheinman in 1976, and the design was sold to Unimation.

Commercial and industrial robots are now in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods.[62]

Future development and trends

External videos Atlas, The Next Generation

Further information: Robotics

Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of robotics and robots. One method is evolutionary robotics, in which a number of differing robots are submitted to tests. Those which perform best are used as a model to create a subsequent "generation" of robots. Another method is developmental robotics, which tracks changes and development within a single robot in the areas of problem-solving and other functions. Another new type of robot is just recently introduced which acts both as a smartphone and robot and is named RoboHon.[63]

As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System (ROS) is an open-source software set of programs being developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the Technical University of Munich, Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to program a robot's navigation and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also provides high-level commands for items like image recognition and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a robot's computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of robots' limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also developing a "Windows for robots" system with its Robotics Developer Studio, which has been available since 2007.[64]

Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry.[65]

Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well beyond the capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction.[66][67] As early as 1982 people were confident that someday robots would:[68] 1. Clean parts by removing molding flash 2. Spray paint automobiles with absolutely no human presence 3. Pack things in boxes—for example, orient and nest chocolate candies in candy boxes 4. Make electrical cable harness 5. Load trucks with boxes—a packing problem 6. Handle soft goods, such as garments and shoes 7. Shear sheep 8. prosthesis 9. Cook fast food and work in other service industries 10. Household robot.

Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale.

New functionalities and prototypes

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2021)

In 2008, Caterpillar Inc. developed a dump truck which can drive itself without any human operator.[69] Many analysts believe that self-driving trucks may eventually revolutionize logistics.[70] By 2014, Caterpillar had a self-driving dump truck which is expected to greatly change the process of mining. In 2015, these Caterpillar trucks were actively used in mining operations in Australia by the mining company Rio Tinto Coal Australia.[71][72][73][74] Some analysts believe that within the next few decades, most trucks will be self-driving.[75]

A literate or 'reading robot' named Marge has intelligence that comes from software. She can read newspapers, find and correct misspelled words, learn about banks like Barclays, and understand that some restaurants are better places to eat than others.[76]

Baxter is a new robot introduced in 2012 which learns by guidance. A worker could teach Baxter how to perform a task by moving its hands in the desired motion and having Baxter memorize them. Extra dials, buttons, and controls are available on Baxter's arm for more precision and features. Any regular worker could program Baxter and it only takes a matter of minutes, unlike usual industrial robots that take extensive programs and coding to be used. This means Baxter needs no programming to operate. No software engineers are needed. This also means Baxter can be taught to perform multiple, more complicated tasks. Sawyer was added in 2015 for smaller, more precise tasks.[77]

Prototype cooking robots have been developed and could be programmed for autonomous, dynamic and adjustable preparation of discrete meals.[78][79]

Etymology

Robot | Definition, History, Uses, Types, & Facts | Britannica

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The Complete History And Future of Robots | WIRED

Complete History And Future of Robots | WIREDSkip to main contentOpen Navigation MenuMenuStory SavedTo revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories.Close AlertThe WIRED Guide to RobotsSecurityPoliticsGearBackchannelBusinessScienceCultureIdeasMerchMoreChevronStory SavedTo revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories.Close AlertSign InSearchSearchSecurityPoliticsGearBackchannelBusinessScienceCultureIdeasMerchPodcastsVideoWired WorldArtificial IntelligenceClimateGamesNewslettersMagazineEventsWired InsiderJobsCouponsMatt SimonScienceApr 16, 2020 9:00 AMThe WIRED Guide to RobotsEverything you wanted to know about soft, hard, and nonmurderous automatons.Play/Pause ButtonPauseRadioSave this storySaveSave this storySaveModern robots are not unlike toddlers: It’s hilarious to watch them fall over, but deep down we know that if we laugh too hard, they might develop a complex and grow up to start World War III. None of humanity’s creations inspires such a confusing mix of awe, admiration, and fear: We want robots to make our lives easier and safer, yet we can’t quite bring ourselves to trust them. We’re crafting them in our own image, yet we are terrified they’ll supplant us.But that trepidation is no obstacle to the booming field of robotics. Robots have finally grown smart enough and physically capable enough to make their way out of factories and labs to walk and roll and even leap among us. The machines have arrived.You may be worried a robot is going to steal your job, and we get that. This is capitalism, after all, and automation is inevitable. But you may be more likely to work alongside a robot in the near future than have one replace you. And even better news: You’re more likely to make friends with a robot than have one murder you. Hooray for the future!The History of RobotsThe definition of “robot” has been confusing from the very beginning. The word first appeared in 1921, in Karel Capek’s play R.U.R., or Rossum's Universal Robots. “Robot” comes from the Czech for “forced labor.” These robots were robots more in spirit than form, though. They looked like humans, and instead of being made of metal, they were made of chemical batter. The robots were far more efficient than their human counterparts, and also way more murder-y—they ended up going on a killing spree.R.U.R. would establish the trope of the Not-to-Be-Trusted Machine (e.g., Terminator, The Stepford Wives, Blade Runner, etc.) that continues to this day—which is not to say pop culture hasn’t embraced friendlier robots. Think Rosie from The Jetsons. (Ornery, sure, but certainly not homicidal.) And it doesn’t get much family-friendlier than Robin Williams as Bicentennial Man.The real-world definition of “robot” is just as slippery as those fictional depictions. Ask 10 roboticists and you’ll get 10 answers—how autonomous does it need to be, for instance. But they do agree on some general guidelines: A robot is an intelligent, physically embodied machine. A robot can perform tasks autonomously to some degree. And a robot can sense and manipulate its environment.Robo-cabularyHuman-robot interactionA field of robotics that studies the relationship between people and machines. For example, a self-driving car could see a stop sign and hit the brakes at the last minute, but that would terrify pedestrians and passengers alike. By studying human-robot interaction, roboticists can shape a world in which people and machines get along without hurting each other.HumanoidThe classical sci-fi robot. This is perhaps the most challenging form of robot to engineer, on account of it being both technically difficult and energetically costly to walk and balance on two legs. But humanoids may hold promise in rescue operations, where they’d be able to better navigate an environment designed for humans, like a nuclear reactor.ActuatorTypically, a combination of an electric motor and a gearbox. Actuators are what power most robots.Soft roboticsA field of robotics that foregoes traditional materials and motors in favor of generally softer materials and pumping air or oil to move its parts.LidarLidar, or light detection and ranging, is a system that blasts a robot’s surroundings with lasers to build a 3-D map. This is pivotal both for self-driving cars and for service robots that need to work with humans without running them down.SingularityThe hypothetical point where the machines grow so advanced that humans are forced into a societal and existential crisis.MultiplicityThe idea that robots and AI won’t supplant humans, but complement them.Think of a simple drone that you pilot around. That’s no robot. But give a drone the power to take off and land on its own and sense objects and suddenly it’s a lot more robot-ish. It’s the intelligence and sensing and autonomy that’s key.But it wasn’t until the 1960s that a company built something that started meeting those guidelines. That’s when SRI International in Silicon Valley developed Shakey, the first truly mobile and perceptive robot. This tower on wheels was well-named—awkward, slow, twitchy. Equipped with a camera and bump sensors, Shakey could navigate a complex environment. It wasn’t a particularly confident-looking machine, but it was the beginning of the robotic revolution.Around the time Shakey was trembling about, robot arms were beginning to transform manufacturing. The first among them was Unimate, which welded auto bodies. Today, its descendants rule car factories, performing tedious, dangerous tasks with far more precision and speed than any human could muster. Even though they’re stuck in place, they still very much fit our definition of a robot—they’re intelligent machines that sense and manipulate their environment.Robots, though, remained largely confined to factories and labs, where they either rolled about or were stuck in place lifting objects. Then, in the mid-1980s Honda started up a humanoid robotics program. It developed P3, which could walk pretty darn good and also wave and shake hands, much to the delight of a roomful of suits. The work would culminate in Asimo, the famed biped, which once tried to take out President Obama with a well-kicked soccer ball. (OK, perhaps it was more innocent than that.)Today, advanced robots are popping up everywhere. For that you can thank three technologies in particular: sensors, actuators, and AI.So, sensors. Machines that roll on sidewalks to deliver falafel can only navigate our world thanks in large part to the 2004 Darpa Grand Challenge, in which teams of roboticists cobbled together self-driving cars to race through the desert. Their secret? Lidar, which shoots out lasers to build a 3-D map of the world. The ensuing private-sector race to develop self-driving cars has dramatically driven down the price of lidar, to the point that engineers can create perceptive robots on the (relative) cheap.Most PopularPoliticsThe Kate Middleton Photo Controversy Is an Inexplicable MessBrian BarrettScienceSolar-Powered Farming Is Quickly Depleting the World's Groundwater SupplyFred PearceSecurityAirbnb Bans All Indoor Security CamerasAmanda HooverScienceStumped by Heat Pumps?Rhett AllainLidar is often combined with something called machine vision—2-D or 3-D cameras that allow the robot to build an even better picture of its world. You know how Facebook automatically recognizes your mug and tags you in pictures? Same principle with robots. Fancy algorithms allow them to pick out certain landmarks or objects.Sensors are what keep robots from smashing into things. They’re why a robot mule of sorts can keep an eye on you, following you and schlepping your stuff around; machine vision also allows robots to scan cherry trees to determine where best to shake them , helping fill massive labor gaps in agriculture.New technologies promise to let robots sense the world in ways that are far beyond humans’ capabilities. We’re talking about seeing around corners: At MIT, researchers have developed a system that watches the floor at the corner of, say, a hallway, and picks out subtle movements being reflected from the other side that the piddling human eye can’t see. Such technology could one day ensure that robots don’t crash into humans in labyrinthine buildings, and even allow self-driving cars to see occluded scenes.Within each of these robots is the next secret ingredient: the actuator, which is a fancy word for the combo electric motor and gearbox that you’ll find in a robot’s joint. It’s this actuator that determines how strong a robot is and how smoothly or not smoothly it moves. Without actuators, robots would crumple like rag dolls. Even relatively simple robots like Roombas owe their existence to actuators. Self-driving cars, too, are loaded with the things.Actuators are great for powering massive robot arms on a car assembly line, but a newish field, known as soft robotics, is devoted to creating actuators that operate on a whole new level. Unlike mule robots, soft robots are generally squishy, and use air or oil to get themselves moving. So for instance, one particular kind of robot muscle uses electrodes to squeeze a pouch of oil, expanding and contracting to tug on weights. Unlike with bulky traditional actuators, you could stack a bunch of these to magnify the strength: A robot named Kengoro, for instance, moves with 116 actuators that tug on cables, allowing the machine to do unsettlingly human maneuvers like pushups. It’s a far more natural-looking form of movement than what you’d get with traditional electric motors housed in the joints.And then there’s Boston Dynamics, which created the Atlas humanoid robot for the Darpa Robotics Challenge in 2013. At first, university robotics research teams struggled to get the machine to tackle the basic tasks of the original 2013 challenge and the finals round in 2015, like turning valves and opening doors. But Boston Dynamics has since that time turned Atlas into a marvel that can do backflips, far outpacing other bipeds that still have a hard time walking. (Unlike the Terminator, though, it does not pack heat.) Boston Dynamics has also begun leasing a quadruped robot called Spot, which can recover in unsettling fashion when humans kick or tug on it. That kind of stability will be key if we want to build a world where we don’t spend all our time helping robots out of jams. And it’s all thanks to the humble actuator.Most PopularPoliticsThe Kate Middleton Photo Controversy Is an Inexplicable MessBrian BarrettScienceSolar-Powered Farming Is Quickly Depleting the World's Groundwater SupplyFred PearceSecurityAirbnb Bans All Indoor Security CamerasAmanda HooverScienceStumped by Heat Pumps?Rhett AllainAt the same time that robots like Atlas and Spot are getting more physically robust, they’re getting smarter, thanks to AI. Robotics seems to be reaching an inflection point, where processing power and artificial intelligence are combining to truly ensmarten the machines. And for the machines, just as in humans, the senses and intelligence are inseparable—if you pick up a fake apple and don’t realize it’s plastic before shoving it in your mouth, you’re not very smart.This is a fascinating frontier in robotics (replicating the sense of touch, not eating fake apples). A company called SynTouch, for instance, has developed robotic fingertips that can detect a range of sensations, from temperature to coarseness. Another robot fingertip from Columbia University replicates touch with light, so in a sense it sees touch: It’s embedded with 32 photodiodes and 30 LEDs, overlaid with a skin of silicone. When that skin is deformed, the photodiodes detect how light from the LEDs changes to pinpoint where exactly you touched the fingertip, and how hard.Far from the hulking dullards that lift car doors on automotive assembly lines, the robots of tomorrow will be very sensitive indeed.The Future of RobotsIncreasingly sophisticated machines may populate our world, but for robots to be really useful, they’ll have to become more self-sufficient. After all, it would be impossible to program a home robot with the instructions for gripping each and every object it ever might encounter. You want it to learn on its own, and that is where advances in artificial intelligence come in.Take Brett. In a UC Berkeley lab, the humanoid robot has taught itself to conquer one of those children’s puzzles where you cram pegs into different shaped holes. It did so by trial and error through a process called reinforcement learning. No one told it how to get a square peg into a square hole, just that it needed to. So by making random movements and getting a digital reward (basically, yes, do that kind of thing again) each time it got closer to success, Brett learned something new on its own. The process is super slow, sure, but with time roboticists will hone the machines’ ability to teach themselves novel skills in novel environments, which is pivotal if we don’t want to get stuck babysitting them.Most PopularPoliticsThe Kate Middleton Photo Controversy Is an Inexplicable MessBrian BarrettScienceSolar-Powered Farming Is Quickly Depleting the World's Groundwater SupplyFred PearceSecurityAirbnb Bans All Indoor Security CamerasAmanda HooverScienceStumped by Heat Pumps?Rhett AllainAnother tack here is to have a digital version of a robot train first in simulation, then port what it has learned to the physical robot in a lab. Over at Google, researchers used motion-capture videos of dogs to program a simulated dog, then used reinforcement learning to get a simulated four-legged robot to teach itself to make the same movements. That is, even though both have four legs, the robot’s body is mechanically distinct from a dog’s, so they move in distinct ways. But after many random movements, the simulated robot got enough rewards to match the simulated dog. Then the researchers transferred that knowledge to the real robot in the lab, and sure enough, the thing could walk—in fact, it walked even faster than the robot manufacturer’s default gait, though in fairness it was less stable.13 Robots, Real and Imagined1 / 13ChevronChevronHeritage Images/Getty ImagesPygmalion (Ancient Greece) The start of it all. In Greek mythology, Pygmalion sculpted a female figure out of ivory, and found himself falling for her. He kissed her, and she felt warm, which is weird for ivory. Aphrodite transformed the statue into a real live human woman so Pygmalion could marry her. Thus comes an intelligent humanoid machine into being.They may be getting smarter day by day, but for the near future we are going to have to babysit the robots. As advanced as they’ve become, they still struggle to navigate our world. They plunge into fountains, for instance. So the solution, at least for the short term, is to set up call centers where robots can phone humans to help them out in a pinch. For example, Tug the hospital robot can call for help if it’s roaming the halls at night and there’s no human around to move a cart blocking its path. The operator would them teleoperate the robot around the obstruction.Speaking of hospital robots. When the coronavirus crisis took hold in early 2020, a group of roboticists saw an opportunity: Robots are the perfect coworkers in a pandemic. Engineers must use the crisis, they argued in an editorial, to supercharge the development of medical robots, which never get sick and can do the dull, dirty, and dangerous work that puts human medical workers in harm’s way. Robot helpers could take patients’ temperatures and deliver drugs, for instance. This would free up human doctors and nurses to do what they do best: problem-solving and being empathetic with patients, skills that robots may never be able to replicate.Most PopularPoliticsThe Kate Middleton Photo Controversy Is an Inexplicable MessBrian BarrettScienceSolar-Powered Farming Is Quickly Depleting the World's Groundwater SupplyFred PearceSecurityAirbnb Bans All Indoor Security CamerasAmanda HooverScienceStumped by Heat Pumps?Rhett AllainThe rapidly developing relationship between humans and robots is so complex that it has spawned its own field, known as human-robot interaction. The overarching challenge is this: It’s easy enough to adapt robots to get along with humans—make them soft and give them a sense of touch—but it’s another issue entirely to train humans to get along with the machines. With Tug the hospital robot, for example, doctors and nurses learn to treat it like a grandparent—get the hell out of its way and help it get unstuck if you have to. We also have to manage our expectations: Robots like Atlas may seem advanced, but they’re far from the autonomous wonders you might think.What humanity has done is essentially invented a new species, and now we’re maybe having a little buyers’ remorse. Namely, what if the robots steal all our jobs? Not even white-collar workers are safe from hyper-intelligent AI, after all.A lot of smart people are thinking about the singularity, when the machines grow advanced enough to make humanity obsolete. That will result in a massive societal realignment and species-wide existential crisis. What will we do if we no longer have to work? How does income inequality look anything other than exponentially more dire as industries replace people with machines?These seem like far-out problems, but now is the time to start pondering them. Which you might consider an upside to the killer-robot narrative that Hollywood has fed us all these years: The machines may be limited at the moment, but we as a society need to think seriously about how much power we want to cede. Take San Francisco, for instance, which is exploring the idea of a robot tax, which would force companies to pay up when they displace human workers.I can’t sit here and promise you that the robots won’t one day turn us all into batteries, but the more realistic scenario is that, unlike in the world of R.U.R., humans and robots are poised to live in harmony—because it’s already happening. This is the idea of multiplicity, that you’re more likely to work alongside a robot than be replaced by one. If your car has adaptive cruise control, you’re already doing this, letting the robot handle the boring highway work while you take over for the complexity of city driving. The fact that the US economy ground to a standstill during the coronavirus pandemic made it abundantly clear that robots are nowhere near ready to replace humans en masse.The machines promise to change virtually every aspect of human life, from health care to transportation to work. Should they help us drive? Absolutely. (They will, though, have to make the decision to sometimes kill, but the benefits of precision driving far outweigh the risks.) Should they replace nurses and cops? Maybe not—certain jobs may always require a human touch.One thing is abundantly clear: The machines have arrived. Now we have to figure out how to handle the responsibility of having invented a whole new species.Most PopularPoliticsThe Kate Middleton Photo Controversy Is an Inexplicable MessBrian BarrettScienceSolar-Powered Farming Is Quickly Depleting the World's Groundwater SupplyFred PearceSecurityAirbnb Bans All Indoor Security CamerasAmanda HooverScienceStumped by Heat Pumps?Rhett AllainLearn moreIf You Want a Robot to Learn Better, Be a Jerk to ItA good way to make a robot learn is to do the work in simulation, so the machine doesn’t accidentally hurt itself. Even better, you can give it tough love by trying to knock objects out of its hand.Spot the Robot Dog Trots Into the Big, Bad WorldBoston Dynamics' creation is starting to sniff out its role in the workforce: as a helpful canine that still sometimes needs you to hold its paw.Finally, a Robot That Moves Kind of Like a TongueOctopus arms and elephant trunks and human tongues move in a fascinating way, which has now inspired a fascinating new kind of robot.Robots Are Fueling the Quiet Ascendance of the Electric MotorFor something born over a century ago, the electric motor really hasn’t fully extended its wings. The problem? Fossil fuels are just too easy, and for the time being, cheap. But now, it’s actually robots, with their actuators, that are fueling the secret ascendence of the electric motor.This Robot Fish Powers Itself With Fake BloodA robot lionfish uses a rudimentary vasculature and “blood” to both energize itself and hydraulically power its fins.Inside the Amazon Warehouse Where Humans and Machines Become OneIn an Amazon sorting center, a swarm of robots works alongside humans. Here’s what that says about Amazon—and the future of work.This guide was last updated on April 13, 2020.Enjoyed this deep dive? Check out more WIRED Guides.Matt Simon is a senior staff writer covering biology, robotics, and the environment. He’s the author, most recently, of A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our Bodies.Staff WriterXTopicsWired GuiderobotsMore from WIREDStop Misunderstanding the Gender Health GapSex differences explain some of the gaping health inequalities between men and women—but a lot of the time, it’s sexism.Rob ReddickEmergency Planners Are Having a MomentGovernments, businesses, and even militaries pay for experts to help them prepare for the worst. In a world lurching from disaster to disaster, they're doing so more often.Rob ReddickForget Carbon Offsets. The Planet Needs Carbon Removal CreditsThe carbon removal market is fast growing, with an array of different removal methods available to businesses keen to mitigate their environmental impact.Stephen Armstrong23andMe Is Under Fire. Its Founder Remains ‘Optimistic’23andMe’s CEO Anne Wojcicki has saved the genetics company from the brink of failure before. She sat down with WIRED to talk about where it goes from here.Emily MullinGoogle’s Chess Experiments Reveal How to Boost the Power of AIBy rewarding computers that combined different approaches to solve chess puzzles, Google created an enhanced AI that could defeat its existing champion, AlphaZero.Stephen OrnesA New Headset Aims to Treat Alzheimer’s With Light and SoundAn experimental device developed by Cognito Therapeutics seeks to slow cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s patients using light and sound.Emily MullinSelective Forgetting Can Help AI Learn BetterErasing key information during training allows machine learning models to learn new languages faster and more easily.Amos ZeebergSo You Want to Rewire BrainsWhen everyone's hooking their brains up to computers, we'll need surgeons to install the hardware.Caitlin KellyWIRED is where tomorrow is realized. It is the essential source of information and ideas that make sense of a world in constant transformation. 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Robotics: What Are Robots? Robotics Definition & Uses. | Built In

tics: What Are Robots? Robotics Definition & Uses. | Built In Skip to main content Robotics.Robotics: What Are Robots? Robotics Definition & Uses.Written bySam DaleyUPDATED BYMatthew Urwin | Feb. 13, 2024Robotics TechnologyRobotics is an interdisciplinary sector of science and engineering dedicated to the design, construction and use of mechanical robots. Our guide will give you a concrete grasp of robotics, including different types of robots and how they’re being applied across industries.Robotics: What It Is, How It WorksFuture of RoboticsHistory of RoboticsRobotics: What It Is, How It WorksWhat Is Robotics?Robotics is the intersection of science, engineering and technology that produces machines, called robots, that replicate or substitute for human actions. Robots perform basic and repetitive tasks with greater efficiency and accuracy than humans, making them ideal for industries like manufacturing. However, the introduction of artificial intelligence in robotics has given robots the ability to handle increasingly complex situations in various industries. What Is a Robot?A robot is a programmable machine that can complete a task, while the term robotics describes the field of study focused on developing robots and automation. Each robot has a different level of autonomy. These levels range from human-controlled bots that carry out tasks to fully-autonomous bots that perform tasks without any external influences.In terms of etymology, the word ‘robot’ is derived from the Czech word robota, which means “forced labor.” The word first appeared in the 1920 play R.U.R., in reference to the play’s characters who were mass-produced workers incapable of creative thinking. Robotics Aspects Mechanical ConstructionThe mechanical aspect of a robot helps it complete tasks in the environment for which it’s designed. For example, the Mars 2020 Rover’s wheels are individually motorized and made of titanium tubing that help it firmly grip the harsh terrain of the red planet.Electrical ComponentsRobots need electrical components that control and power the machinery. Essentially, an electric current — a battery, for example — is needed to power a large majority of robots.Software ProgramRobots contain at least some level of computer programming. Without a set of code telling it what to do, a robot would just be another piece of simple machinery. Inserting a program into a robot gives it the ability to know when and how to carry out a task. What Are the Main Components of a Robot? Control SystemComputation includes all of the components that make up a robot’s central processing unit, often referred to as its control system. Control systems are programmed to tell a robot how to utilize its specific components, similar in some ways to how the human brain sends signals throughout the body, in order to complete a specific task. These robotic tasks could comprise anything from minimally invasive surgery to assembly line packing.SensorsSensors provide a robot with stimuli in the form of electrical signals that are processed by the controller and allow the robot to interact with the outside world. Common sensors found within robots include video cameras that function as eyes, photoresistors that react to light and microphones that operate like ears. These sensors allow the robot to capture its surroundings and process the most logical conclusion based on the current moment and allows the controller to relay commands to the additional components.ActuatorsA device can only be considered to be a robot if it has a movable frame or body. Actuators are the components that are responsible for this movement. These components are made up of motors that receive signals from the control system and move in tandem to carry out the movement necessary to complete the assigned task. Actuators can be made of a variety of materials, such as metal or elastic, and are commonly operated by use of compressed air (pneumatic actuators) or oil (hydraulic actuators) but come in a variety of formats to best fulfill their specialized roles.Power SupplyLike the human body requires food in order to function, robots require power. Stationary robots, such as those found in a factory, may run on AC power through a wall outlet but more commonly, robots operate via an internal battery. Most robots utilize lead-acid batteries for their safe qualities and long shelf life while others may utilize the more compact but also more expensive silver-cadmium variety. Safety, weight, replaceability and lifecycle are all important factors to consider when designing a robot’s power supply. Some potential power sources for future robotic development also include pneumatic power from compressed gasses, solar power, hydraulic power, flywheel energy storage organic garbage through anaerobic digestion and nuclear power.End EffectorsEnd effectors are the physical, typically external components that allow robots to finish carrying out their tasks. Robots in factories often have interchangeable tools like paint sprayers and drills, surgical robots may be equipped with scalpels and other kinds of robots can be built with gripping claws or even hands for tasks like deliveries, packing, bomb diffusion and much more. How Do Robots Work?Some robots are pre-programmed to perform specific functions, meaning they operate in a controlled environment where they do simple, monotonous tasks — like a mechanical arm on an automotive assembly line.Other robots are autonomous, operating independently of human operators to carry out tasks in open environments. In order to work, they use sensors to perceive the world around them, and then employ decision-making structures (usually a computer) to take the optimal next step based on their data and mission.Robots may also work by using wireless networks to enable human control from a safe distance. These teleoperated robots usually work in extreme geographical conditions, weather and circumstances. Examples of teleoperated robots are the human-controlled submarines used to fix underwater pipe leaks during the BP oil spill or drones used to detect landmines on a battlefield. Types of Robotics Humanoid RobotsHumanoid robots are robots that look like or mimic human behavior. These robots usually perform human-like activities (like running, jumping and carrying objects), and are sometimes designed to look like us, even having human faces and expressions. Two of the most prominent examples of humanoid robots are Hanson Robotics’ Sophia and Boston Dynamics’ Atlas.CobotsCobots, or collaborative robots, are robots designed to work alongside humans. These robots prioritize safety by using sensors to remain aware of their surroundings, executing slow movements and ceasing actions when their movements are obstructed. Cobots typically perform simple tasks, freeing up humans to address more complex work.Industrial RobotsIndustrial robots automate processes in manufacturing environments like factories and warehouses. Possessing at least one robotic arm, these robots are made to handle heavy objects while moving with speed and precision. As a result, industrial robots often work in assembly lines to boost productivity.Medical RobotsMedical robots assist healthcare professionals in various scenarios and support the physical and mental health of humans. These robots rely on AI and sensors to navigate healthcare facilities, interact with humans and execute precise movements. Some medical robots can even converse with humans, encouraging people’s social and emotional growth.Agricultural RobotsAgricultural robots handle repetitive and labor-intensive tasks, allowing farmers to use their time and energy more efficiently. These robots also operate in greenhouses, where they monitor crops and help with harvests. Agricultural robots come in many forms, ranging from autonomous tractors to drones that collect data for farmers to analyze.MicroroboticsMicrorobotics is the study and development of robots on a miniature scale. Often no bigger than a millimeter, microrobots can vary in size, depending on the situation. Biotech researchers typically use microrobotics to monitor and treat diseases, with the goal of improving diagnostic tools and creating more targeted solutions.Augmenting RobotsAugmenting robots, also known as VR robots, either enhance current human capabilities or replace the capabilities a human may have lost. The field of robotics for human augmentation is a field where science fiction could become reality very soon, with bots that have the ability to redefine the definition of humanity by making humans faster and stronger. Some examples of current augmenting robots are robotic prosthetic limbs or exoskeletons used to lift hefty weights.Software BotsSoftware bots, or simply ‘bots,’ are computer programs which carry out tasks autonomously. They are not technically considered robots. One common use case of software robots is a chatbot, which is a computer program that simulates conversation both online and over the phone and is often used in customer service scenarios. Chatbots can either be simple services that answer questions with an automated response or more complex digital assistants that learn from user information. Robotics ApplicationsBeginning as a major boon for manufacturers, robotics has become a mainstay technology for a growing number of industries.ManufacturingIndustrial robots can assemble products, sort items, perform welds and paint objects. They may even be used to fix and maintain other machines in a factory or warehouse. HealthcareMedical robots transport medical supplies, perform surgical procedures and offer emotional support to those going through rehabilitation. CompanionshipSocial robots can support children with learning disabilities and act as a therapeutic tool for people with dementia. They also have business applications like providing in-person customer service in hotels and moving products around warehouses. Home UseConsumers may be most familiar with the Roomba and other robot vacuum cleaners. However, other home robots include lawn-mowing robots and personal robot assistants that can play music, engage with children and help with household chores.Search and RescueSearch and rescue robots can save those stuck in flood waters, deliver supplies to those stranded in remote areas and put out fires when conditions become too extreme for firefighters. Pros and Cons of RoboticsRobotics comes with a number of benefits and drawbacks.Pros of RoboticsIncreased accuracy. Robots can perform movements and actions with greater precision and accuracy than humans.Enhanced productivity. Robots can work at a faster pace than humans and don’t get tired, leading to more consistent and higher-volume production. Improved safety. Robots can take on tasks and operate in environments unsafe for humans, protecting workers from injuries. Rapid innovation. Many robots are equipped with sensors and cameras that collect data, so teams can quickly refine processes. Greater cost-efficiency. Gains in productivity may make robots a more cost-efficient option for businesses compared to hiring more human workers.Cons of RoboticsJob losses. Robotic process automation may put human employees out of work, especially those who don’t have the skills to adapt to a changing workplace. Limited creativity. Robots may not react well to unexpected situations since they don’t have the same problem-solving skills as humans. Data security risks. Robots can be hit with cyber attacks, potentially exposing large amounts of data if they’re connected to the Internet of Things. Maintenance costs. Robots can be expensive to repair and maintain, and faulty equipment can lead to disruptions in production and revenue losses. Environmental waste. Extracting raw materials to build robots and having to discard disposable parts can lead to more environmental waste and pollution.Future of RoboticsFuture of RoboticsThe evolution of AI has major implications for the future of robotics. In factories, AI can be combined with robotics to produce digital twins and design simulations to help companies improve their workflows. Advanced AI also gives robots increased autonomy. For example, drones could deliver packages to customers without any human intervention. In addition, robots could be outfitted with generative AI tools like ChatGPT, resulting in more complex human-robot conversations.As robots’ intelligence has shifted, so too have their appearances. Humanoid robots are designed to visually appeal to humans in various settings while understanding and responding to emotions, carrying objects and navigating environments. With these forms and abilities, robots can become major contributors in customer service, manufacturing, logistics and healthcare, among other industries.While the spread of robotics has stoked fears over job losses due to automation, robots could simply change the nature of human jobs. Humans may find themselves collaborating with robots, letting their robotic counterparts handle repetitive tasks while they focus on more difficult problems. Either way, humans will need to adapt to the presence of robots as robotics continues to progress alongside other technologies like AI and deep learning. History of RoboticsHistory of RoboticsRobotics as a concept goes back to ancient times. The ancient Greeks combined automation and engineering to create the Antikythera, a handheld device that predicted eclipses. Centuries later, Leonardo Da Vinci designed a mechanical knight now known as “Leonardo’s Robot.” But it was the rise of manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution that highlighted the need for widespread automation.Following William Grey Walter’s development of the first autonomous robots in 1948, George Devol created the first industrial robotic arm known as Unimate. It began operating at a GM facility in 1959. In 1972, the Stanford Research Institute designed Shakey — the first AI-powered robot. Shakey used cameras and sensors to collect data from its surroundings and inform its next moves.The ability of robots to perceive their surroundings led researchers to explore whether they could also perceive human emotions. In the late 1990s, MIT’s Dr. Cynthia Breazeal built Kismet, a robotic head that used facial features to express and respond to human emotions. This predecessor to social robots opened the door for future robots like Roomba and consumer-centric inventions like Alexa and other voice assistants.Robots took another leap forward in 2012 due to a breakthrough in deep learning. Armed with volumes of digital images, British AI expert Geoffrey Hinton and his team successfully trained a system of neural networks to sort over one million images while making few errors. Since then, companies have incorporated deep learning into their technologies, promising more possibilities for robotics. 1700s(1737) Jacques de Vaucanson builds the first biomechanical automaton on record. Called the Flute Player, the mechanical device plays 12 songs.1920s(1920) The word “robot” makes its first appearance in Karel Capek’s play R.U.R. Robot is derived from the Czech word “robota,” which means “forced labor.”(1926) The first movie robot appears in Metropolis.1930s(1936) Alan Turing publishes “On Computable Numbers,” a paper that introduces the concept of a theoretical computer called the Turing Machine.1940s(1948) Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal is published by MIT professor Norbert Wiener. The book speaks on the concept of communications and control in electronic, mechanical and biological systems.(1949) William Grey Walter, a neurophysiologist and inventor, introduces Elmer and Elsie, a pair of battery-operated robots that look like tortoises. The robots move objects, find a source of light and find their way back to a charging station.1950s(1950) Isaac Asimov publishes the Three Laws of Robotics.(1950) Alan Turing publishes the paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” proposing what is now known as the Turing Test, a method for determining if a machine is intelligent.1960s(1961) The first robotic arm works in a General Motors facility. The arm lifts and stacks metal parts and follows a program for approximately 200 movements. The arm was created by George Devol and his partner Joseph Engelberger.(1969) Victor Scheinman invents the Stanford Arm, a robotic arm with six joints that can mimic the movements of a human arm. It is one of the first robots designed to be controlled by a computer.1970s(1972) A group of engineers at the Stanford Research Institute create Shakey, the first robot to use artificial intelligence. Shakey completes tasks by observing its environment and forming a plan.The robot uses sensors, a range-finder and touch-sensitive apparatus to plan its moves.(1978) Hiroshi Makino, an automation researcher, designs a four-axis SCARA robotic arm. Known as the first “pick and place” robot, the arm is programmed to pick an object up, turn and place it in another location.1980s(1985) The first documented use of a robot-assisted surgical procedure uses the PUMA 560 robotic surgical arm. (1985) William Whittaker builds two remotely-operated robots that are sent to the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant. The robots work in the damaged reactor building’s basement to survey the site, send back information and drill core samples to measure radiation levels.(1989) MIT researchers Rodney Brooks and A. M. Flynn publish Fast, Cheap and Out of Control: A Robot Invasion of the Solar System. The paper argues for building many small, cheap robots rather than few big, expensive ones.1990s(1990) A group of researchers from MIT found iRobot, the company behind the Roomba vacuum cleaner. (1992) Marc Raibert, another MIT researcher, founds robotics company Boston Dynamics. (1997) Sojourner lands on Mars. The free-ranging rover sends 2.3 billion bits of data back to Earth, including more than 17,000 images, 15 chemical analyses of rocks and soil and extensive data on Mars’ weather.(1998) Furby, a robotic toy pet developed by Tiger Electronics, is released and eventually sells tens of millions of units. Furbys are preprogrammed to speak gibberish and learn other languages over time. (1999) Aibo, a robotic puppy powered by AI hits the commercial market. Developed by Sony, the robotic dog reacts to sounds and has some pre-programmed behavior.2000s(2000) Cynthia Breazeal creates a robotic head programmed to provoke emotions as well as react to them. Called Kismet, the robot consists of 21 motors, audio sensors and algorithms to understand vocal tone. (2000) Sony unveils the humanoid Sony Dream Robot, a bipedal humanoid entertainment robot it developed and marketed but never sold.(2001) iRobot’s PackBot searches the World Trade Center site after September 11th.(2002) iRobot creates Roomba. The vacuum robot is the first robot to become popular in the commercial sector amongst the public. (2003) Mick Mountz and the cofounders of Amazon Robotics (formerly Kiva Systems) invent the Kiva robot. The robot maneuvers around warehouses and moves goods.(2004) Boston Dynamics unveils BigDog, a quadruped robot controlled by humans. The robot is known for being more nimble than previous iterations of robots, as it is capable of only having two feet on the ground at a time. It has 50 sensors and an onboard computer that manages the gait and keeps it stable. (2004) The Defense Department’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency establishes the DARPA Grand Challenge. A self-driving car race that aims to inspire innovation in military autonomous vehicle tech. (2005) A Volkswagen Touareg named Stanley wins the second DARPA Grand Challenge. The car uses AI trained on the driving habits of real-world humans and five lidar laser sensors to complete a 131.2-mile course in the Mojave Desert.2010s(2011) NASA and General Motors collaborate to send Robonaut 2, a humanesque robotic assistant, into space on space shuttle Discovery. The robot becomes a permanent resident of the International Space Station.(2013) Boston Dynamics releases Atlas, a humanoid biped robot that uses 28 hydraulic joints to mimic human movements — including performing a backflip.(2012) The first license for a self-driven car is issued in Nevada. The car is a Toyota Prius modified with technology developed by Google. (2014) Canadian researchers develop hitchBOT, a bot that hitchhikes across Canada and Europe as part of a social experiment.(2016) Sophia, a humanoid robot dubbed the first robot citizen, is created by Hanson Robotics. The robot is capable of facial recognition, verbal communication and facial expression.2020s(2020) Robots are used to distribute COVID-19 tests and vaccinations. (2020) 384,000 industrial robots are shipped across the globe to perform various manufacturing and warehouse jobs. (2021) Cruise, an autonomous car company, conducts its first two robotaxi test rides in San Francisco. 23 Robotics Companies and Startups on the Forefront of InnovationAt robotics companies across America, the co-mingling of engineering and science is producing some truly innovative products. Read Article Types of Robots and How They’re Used More StoriesBack to Top Underwater Robotics: How It Works and Examples Read Article What Are Industrial Robots? Deep Tech, Explained What Are Shape-Shifting Robots? Why We Send Robots to Space (and 7 Examples) 7 Extraordinary Robots From the World Robot Conference Read Article Xenobots: The Self-Replicating Living Robots 21 Examples of Robotic Process Automation 6 Top Industrial Automation Companies What Are Robot Bees? What Is a Social Robot? Read Article Medical Robots Transforming Healthcare: 11 Examples Continue ReadingWhat Is Nanorobotics?What Does a Robotics Engineer Do?What It’s Like to Work With a RobotWhat Is Machine Vision?The Tesla Robot: Here’s What We Know14 Examples of the Uncanny ValleyIt’s Time to Talk About Sex TechThe Future of Robots and RoboticsWhat Is Robotics as a Service (RaaS)?16 Agricultural Robots and Farm Robots You Should KnowA Guide to Autonomous Mobile RobotsWhat Are Cobots and How Are We Using Them?Top 8 Robotic Programming LanguagesMicrorobotics: Tiny Robots and Their Many UsesIs the Construction Industry Ready to Embrace Robots?20 Top Industrial Robot Companies to KnowTop 22 Humanoid Robots in Use Right Now31 AI Robotics Companies Driving InnovationExoskeleton Suits: 20 Real-Life ExamplesA Software Revolution Is About to Sweep Robotics12 Publicly Traded Robotics Companies That Are Changing the Game Robots Aren’t Just for High-Tech Labs and Heavy Industry Anymore. And That’s a Good Thing.8 Industries Poised to Benefit From Augmented and Virtual RealityRobotic Research Got $228M, Tribaja’s New Office, and More D.C. Tech NewsRobotic Research Raises $228M to Scale Autonomous Commercial VehiclesThe Secret to Success in Tech? Don’t Panic.Do Robots Have a Race?Cruise Engineers Balance Safety With Experimentation in the Pursuit of Autonomous VehiclesAI Taking Over Jobs: What to Know About the Future of JobsCould You Kill a Robot Dinosaur?More Women Are Needed in Robotics Technician RolesCan Haptic Feedback Tech Help Us Feel More?U.S. Manufacturing Jobs Aren’t Gone — They’re Evolving9 Houston Robotics Companies Moving the World Closer to an Automation-First FutureHow Companion Uses TensorFlow to Build a Robotic Pet TrainerOnline Grocery Orders Could Be a Robotics Gold RushHow Root AI’s Agricultural Robots Are Powering the Farmtech RevolutionHow Robots Can Help Us Beat the PandemicWhy Are Robots Designed to Be Cute?How Oracle's Chicago Innovation Lab Is Building the Future of ConstructionHow MIT Uses Artificial Intelligence to Train Delivery Robots to Find Front Doors12 Examples of Rescue Robots You Should KnowAre Police Robots the Future of Law Enforcement?Robots for Hire: 6 Ways Robots Help Humans7 Examples of Robotics in Education to KnowFrom diffusing bombs to performing surgery, VR is turning people into robots (sort of)11 Robotics Applications in Banking and Finance14 Restaurant Robots Changing the Food Industry12 Car and Automotive Robotics Companies to KnowHuman-robot collaboration at Amazon reveals the future of workJD.com and Rakuten join forces to enable drone deliveries in JapanHouston area police invest in drones as future of law enforcementJohnson & Johnson acquires robotics company Auris HealthFAA: Drones must show registration number on exteriorWeed trimmers concerned robots may spell end for livelihoodOklahoma lawmakers consider drone ban over rural propertyAutonomous scanners debut at Tampa Bay WalmartsAerial drones to map Jewish cemeteries in preservation effortsQualcomm expands automotive and robotics offeringsPanasonic collaborates with academia to build consumer robotsDrones help researchers manage koala populationsFLIR acquires military robot firm Endeavor for $385 millionSmall Isles of Scotland get a close-up courtesy of dronesDroneSeed replants trees to keep forests healthyU.S. companies install record-breaking number of robotsFedEx to roll out last mile delivery bot Zipline founder talks about upcoming North Carolina pilotDrones to locate avalanche victims fasterNASA to test drone flights in Nevada and TexasDrone collision with commercial plane could doom industry, U.S. House Rep. warnsLandmine-detecting drones could help save livesNet-releasing drone grenades are the latest in anti-drone techRobotics startup Dispatch helped Amazon build ScoutRobots dismantle 100,000 aging chemical weaponsBoston Dynamics receives additional $37 million from SoftBankService bots becoming a familiar sight at public facilities in ChinaPakistan using drones to plant trees and ward off climate changeCuriosity rover on Mars uses sensors to measure mountainShark or dolphin? Scientists put drones to the testBangkok deploys drones to fight back against air pollutionWorld Economic Forum releases Advanced Drone Operator's Toolkit at DavosAnimals appear to become acclimated to dronesTo deliver emergency medical supplies, Alaska is going from mushers to dronesDrones used for biocontrol to curb invasive cacti in KenyaDelivery robots transform campus life at George MasonPoison-dropping drones fight back rat invasion on islandSidewalk robots to begin delivering Amazon packagesGatwick announces plans to roll out fleet of valet-parking robotsUnderwater robots explore Antarctic ice shelfSmart pill maker Proteus launches oncology studyWaymo doubling down on self-driving car production in DetroitLeading drone maker uncovers extensive employee fraudFacebook and Airbus may be collaborating on solar-powered dronesUber reportedly explores autonomous bikes and bikesDrone use could reduce the likelihood of secondary car accidents Robotic model approximates gait of earliest land animals"Shelf"-aware drones monitor inventory in real timeLee County, N.C. invests in drone training for public safetyBee-lieve it or not, drones are pollinating orchardsToyota doubling down on robotics for elder careDrones spot protected bird species in tall grassPentagon: Insect brains to inspire AI-powered military roboticsMarty the robot is Giant Food's latest employeeRobotic tech developed to conduct spinal surgery Robot mishaps turn dream into heartbreak hotelWalmart rolls out autonomous-driving van fleet from UdelvLife-saving drones to deliver organ transplantsNvidia's robotics research lab opens in SeattleAlphabet unit Wing displays system to track, identify dronesDrone restrictions to ease, says U.S. Department of TransportationThe BreadBot knows its way around an ovenUK researchers build AI robot to roam the Red PlanetSafir project aims to harmonize rules for drone use in EuropePepsiCo rolls out robot to deliver healthy snacks to college studentsSegway enters the delivery robot space with Loomo DeliveryRural Australians object to noise in drone pilot, says WSJTorc Robotics and Transdev partner for autonomous shuttle fleetU.S. Army recruits robots for combatChinese e-commerce giant JD.com rolls out autonomous delivery robot fleetVanuatu becomes site of world’s first drone-delivered vaccineSweeper the robot picks ripe peppers in 24 secondsUndersea robot delivers baby coral to Great Barrier ReefThe Da Vinci surgical robot comes with advantages and risksKroger runs autonomous delivery pilotDelivery robot startup works towards inclusive futureRobots widening gender gap, says World Economic Forum reportThe Lovot is cracking the code to your heartRobot accident at Amazon warehouse renews safety debatePostmates delivery robot set to make debutGoogle teaches robots how to recognize objectsCulturally adaptable robots may be the future of elder careWake up and smell the automation: coffee sales to decline due to robotsRobot bartender to debut at Mile High during Broncos-Browns gameBipedal robots could innovate prosthetic devicesNASA's Iceworm robot dares to scale Antarctic volcanoRobots finding work in the world's busiest airportsFacebook sets sights on soft roboticsAmazon Web Services launches RobomakerDrone powered inspections monitoring bridge safetyRobot fry cook Flippy makes a bid for Walmart deli kitchensWith help from Intel, Delair's drones are flying highGreat Companies Need Great People. That's Where We Come In.Recruit With Us Built In is the online community for startups and tech companies. Find startup jobs, tech news and events. About Our Story Careers Our Staff Writers Content Descriptions Company News Get Involved Recruit With Built In Subscribe to Our Newsletter Become an Expert Contributor Send Us a News Tip Resources Customer Support Share Feedback Report a Bug Tech A-Z Browse Jobs Tech Hubs Built In Austin Built In Boston Built In Chicago Built In Colorado Built In LA Built In NYC Built In San Francisco Built In Seattle See All Tech Hubs © Built In 2024 Learning Lab User Agreement Accessibility Statement Copyright Policy Privacy Policy Terms of Use Your Privacy Choices/Cookie Settings CA Notice of Collection

What Is a Robot? - ROBOTS: Your Guide to the World of Robotics

Is a Robot? - ROBOTS: Your Guide to the World of RoboticsJoin IEEEIEEE.orgIEEE Xplore Digital LibraryIEEE StandardsIEEE SpectrumMore SitesSearchRobotsRankingsLearnPlayNewsArticlesTypes of RobotsHow to Get Started in RoboticsWhat Is a Robot?Robotics QuestionsResourcesActivity SheetsRobotics GlossarySTEM ResourcesWhat Is a Robot?Top roboticists explain their definition of robotWritten by Erico GuizzoAugust 9, 2023Updated August 9, 2023Robots are a diverse bunch. Some use wheels to move, while others walk around on two, four, or even six legs. Underwater robots can swim, and drones can take to the skies. Some robots assemble delicate microchips in spotless facilities; others toil away in dusty car factories. There are robots the size of a coin and robots bigger than refrigerators. Some robots can make pancakes. Others can land on Mars.This diversity—in size, design, capabilities—means it's not easy to come up with a definition of what a robot is.In fact, the term "robot" means different things to different people. Even roboticists themselves have different notions about what is or isn't a robot. And for most of us, science fiction has strongly influenced what we expect a robot to look like and be able to do.A simple definition of a robotSo what makes a robot? Here's a definition that is neither too general nor too specific:A robot is an autonomous machine capable of sensing its environment, carrying out computations to make decisions, and performing actions in the real world.Think of the Roomba robotic vacuum. It uses sensors to autonomously drive around a room, going around furniture and avoiding stairs; it carries out computations to make sure it covers the entire room and when deciding if a spot needs a more thorough cleaning; and it performs an action by "sucking dirt," as roboticist Rodney Brooks, one of the Roomba creators, explains.But no definition is perfect. You may argue, and perhaps rightly so, that the definition above could very well describe a dishwasher, a thermostat, an elevator, an automatic door, and many other systems and appliances around us. Is a dishwasher a robot?Famed roboticist Rodney Brooks explains his definition of robot, and whether a dishwasher is a robot or not.Rodney BrooksProfessor of Robotics Emeritus at MIT, Co-founder and CTO of Robust AIWhat makes something a robot?Take, for example, cruise control in cars. It senses how fast the vehicle is going, compares it to a preset speed, and accelerates or brakes as needed. Is cruise control a robot?For his part, Brooks is not enthusiastic about considering dishwashers a class of robot. But other roboticists are less strict. A home thermostat can measure the ambient temperature, check a prestored schedule, and turn on the heating or cooling system accordingly. For Gill Pratt, another roboticist, that's enough to call a thermostat a simple robot.The thing to keep in mind about this or any other definition is that robots can typically do three things: SenseComputeAct These three components vary widely from robot to robot. To sense the world, some robots use simple devices, like an obstacle-detecting sonar, while other robots rely on multiple sensors, including cameras, gyroscopes, and laser range finders. Likewise, the compute part can involve everything from a small electronic circuit to a powerful multicore processor or even a cluster of networked computers. As for the action, this is where robots vary the most: Some robots can move around; others can manipulate things. Some robots can move around and manipulate things. Some are designed to perform specific tasks, while others are more versatile and can do many different things.How do robots work?But although robots vary in how they sense, compute, and act, they all operate in a similar way: Their sensors feed measurements to a controller or computer, which processes them and then sends control signals to motors and actuators. A robot is constantly repeating this sensing-computing-acting cycle, in what roboticists call a "feedback loop." So you could say that feedback is the technique that makes machines "smart," and almost every robot uses feedback.To make things more concrete, consider BigDog, a rough-terrain quadruped robot developed by Boston Dynamics. BigDog uses sensors to measure the position of its leg joints and the forces applied on them. It also uses gyroscopes and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) to keep track of its position in relation to the ground. Based on that information, BigDog's computer calculates which hydraulic actuators it should activate to move the robotic legs.As BigDog takes a step, it's continually (several thousand times per second) updating its sensor, computer, and actuator information in a feedback loop that allows the robot to autonomously walk, trot, climb hills, and step over obstacles. Its creators have even kicked BigDog while it was walking and the robot didn't fall down.To build BigDog, Boston Dynamics engineers studied how real animals run and balance. They used some of those ideas to develop sensing, computing, and actuation systems, and then they combined these three components in a feedback loop that gives BigDog great agility, allowing it to climb hills and even walk on an icy road. More recently, Boston Dynamics took robot agility to new extremes with machines like Spot and Atlas.What about autonomy in robots?Let's go back to our original definition. Another key concept that we should mention is the notion of autonomy. We said robots are autonomous machines, but the level of autonomy differs from robot to robot. Some robots are controlled remotely by human operators. Other robots can run without any kind of human intervention. And a large number of robots rely on both remote control and autonomous behavior.Again, people will disagree on how much autonomy a machine needs to be called a robot. You can try to tweak the original definition to suit your own opinion on this issue, but the fact is, most definitions will never be perfect. When asked to define a robot, robotics pioneer Joseph Engelberger once said, "I don't know how to define one, but I know one when I see one!"Maybe that is the perfect definition of a robot.An exciting time for roboticsMIT roboticist Daniela Rus explains why she believes the age of robotics is upon us as more robots get out of research labs.Daniela RusProfessor of electrical engineering and computer science and Director of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) at MITThe future of roboticsAnother question you may be asking yourself is, Where is my robot? Where are all those helpful robotic systems and humanoids that science fiction promised we'd have by now? Why can't a robot do my laundry for me?The reality is that there remain huge challenges ahead for robotics, and practical home robots are still many years away. Many of the same problems that kept robots limited to factories and research labs are still around today. Two main issues are cost and complexity. Cost is easy to understand: Robotics components, including specialized sensors and computers, but especially actuators to power wheels and robotic arms, are still too costly. And the more capable you want to make your robot, the more components you'll need, so the cost adds up quickly. As for the complexity problem, when you combine sensors, computers, actuators, software, and user interfaces into a robot and try to operate it in the real world, things still don't work perfectly. The robot operates too slowly. Or it acts in an unsafe manner. Or it face-plants into the ground, like many did at a major robotics competition featuring some of the world's most sophisticated robots.To put it another way, things don't work as well as they would need to in order to turn that robot into a practical commercial system.Now here's the good news: Progress in solving those challenges is not only happening—it's happening faster and faster. Daniela Rus, a roboticist at MIT, believes that "the age of robotics is really upon us." Advances in robotics technology, she says, will have a big impact on everyday life as robots leave the lab and become capable, useful machines operating in real environments. Areas that are seeing promising breakthroughs include robot vision, learning, and navigation. Robots are getting better at recognizing objects and people, mapping indoor and outdoor spaces, and moving through real-world human environments. Robot manipulation and biped locomotion are advancing too, though more slowly.A key development is that the technological advances in processors and sensors that made computers and smartphones better and cheaper are also benefiting robots. It's getting easier to equip robots with powerful sensing and computing systems. Another benefit is that researchers don't have to keep reinventing the wheel when it comes to assembling a robot, and that means they can pay more attention to robotics software.AI for robotsRobotics software is a big deal. Without effective and robust algorithms, a robot will never be able to accomplish much. Tools for robot simulation, control, and learning are getting better, but many roboticists would like to see them improving at an even faster rate. There's hope that recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) could give robotics a major boost, and that is currently a very active area of research.Hardware and software standards that would allow different robots to interface more easily are still lacking, but today's robots are not the one-of-a-kind laboratory contraptions they used to be. Major robot makers are relying on open (or mostly open) software platforms, like the Robot Operating System, tapping on their user communities to develop capabilities they'd never be able to develop on their own.Clearly, things are moving in the right direction for robotics. So, where's my robot? you continue to ask.The answer is that if we want capable, affordable robots to help us in the future, we need more people to develop such robots. That's right. In the end, it all depends on you to help build the future of robotics. See our guide on "How to Get Started in Robotics." Then start building robots, join a robotics club or competition, take a robotics course, and become a roboticist.And maybe then you'll build a robot to do your laundry. And mine too, please.More Articles & ResourcesTypes of RobotsarticleCategories frequently used to classify robotsActivity SheetsresourceFun activities to keep kids entertained while they learn about robotsFounding Sponsorscreated by IEEE SpectrumAboutContactDonateSponsorsAbout IEEEContact & SupportAccessibilityNondiscrimination PolicyTermsIEEE Privacy PolicyCookie PreferencesCopyright © 2023 IEEE — All rights reserved. A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity.Structured content powered by Sanity.io.Site by Pentagram and Standard.

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(Top)

1Robotics aspects

2Applied robotics

3Components

Toggle Components subsection

3.1Power source

3.2Actuation

3.2.1Electric motors

3.2.2Linear actuators

3.2.3Series elastic actuators

3.2.4Air muscles

3.2.5Wire muscles

3.2.6Electroactive polymers

3.2.7Piezo motors

3.2.8Elastic nanotubes

3.3Sensing

3.3.1Touch

3.3.2Other

3.4Manipulation

3.4.1Mechanical grippers

3.4.2Suction end-effectors

3.4.3General purpose effectors

3.5Locomotion

3.5.1Rolling robots

3.5.1.1Two-wheeled balancing robots

3.5.1.2One-wheeled balancing robots

3.5.1.3Spherical orb robots

3.5.1.4Six-wheeled robots

3.5.1.5Tracked robots

3.5.2Walking robots

3.5.2.1ZMP technique

3.5.2.2Hopping

3.5.2.3Dynamic balancing (controlled falling)

3.5.2.4Passive dynamics

3.5.3Other methods of locomotion

3.5.3.1Flying

3.5.3.1.1Biomimetic flying robots (BFRs)

3.5.3.1.2Biologically-inspired flying robots

3.5.3.2Snaking

3.5.3.3Skating

3.5.3.4Climbing

3.5.3.5Swimming (Piscine)

3.5.3.6Sailing

4Control

5Automation

Toggle Automation subsection

5.1Vision

5.2Environmental interaction and navigation

5.3Human-robot interaction

5.3.1Speech recognition

5.3.2Robotic voice

5.3.3Gestures

5.3.4Facial expression

5.3.5Artificial emotions

5.3.6Personality

5.3.7Proxemics

6Research robotics

Toggle Research robotics subsection

6.1Dynamics and kinematics

6.2Open source robotics

6.3Evolutionary robotics

6.4Bionics and biomimetics

6.5Swarm robotics

6.6Quantum computing

6.7Other research areas

7Human factors

Toggle Human factors subsection

7.1Education and training

7.2Employment

7.3Occupational safety and health implications

7.4User experience

8Careers

9History

10See also

11Notes

12References

13Further reading

14External links

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Robotics

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Design, construction, use, and application of robots

Not to be confused with Cybernetics.

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Robotics is the interdisciplinary study and practice of the design, construction, operation, and use of robots.[1]

Within mechanical engineering, robotics is the design and construction of the physical structures of robots, while in computer science, robotics focuses on robotic automation algorithms. Other disciplines contributing to robotics include electrical, control, software, information, electronic, telecommunication, computer, mechatronic, materials and biomedical engineering.

The goal of most robotics is to design machines that can help and assist humans. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people, such as finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring space, mines and shipwrecks. Others replace people in jobs that are boring, repetitive, or unpleasant, such as cleaning, monitoring, transporting, and assembling. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue; researching, designing, and building new robots serve various practical purposes.

Robotics aspects[edit]

Mechanical construction

Electrical aspect

Programming aspect

There are many types of robots; they are used in many different environments and for many different uses. Although diverse in application and form, they all share three basic aspects when it comes to their design and construction:

Mechanical construction: a frame, form or shape designed to achieve a particular task. For example, a robot designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud might use caterpillar tracks. Origami inspired robots can sense and analyze in extreme environments.[2] The mechanical aspect of the robot is mostly the creator's solution to completing the assigned task and dealing with the physics of the environment around it. Form follows function.

Electrical components that power and control the machinery. For example, the robot with caterpillar tracks would need some kind of power to move the tracker treads. That power comes in the form of electricity, which will have to travel through a wire and originate from a battery, a basic electrical circuit. Even petrol-powered machines that get their power mainly from petrol still require an electric current to start the combustion process which is why most petrol-powered machines like cars, have batteries. The electrical aspect of robots is used for movement (through motors), sensing (where electrical signals are used to measure things like heat, sound, position, and energy status), and operation (robots need some level of electrical energy supplied to their motors and sensors in order to activate and perform basic operations)

Software. A program is how a robot decides when or how to do something. In the caterpillar track example, a robot that needs to move across a muddy road may have the correct mechanical construction and receive the correct amount of power from its battery, but would not be able to go anywhere without a program telling it to move. Programs are the core essence of a robot, it could have excellent mechanical and electrical construction, but if its program is poorly structured, its performance will be very poor (or it may not perform at all). There are three different types of robotic programs: remote control, artificial intelligence, and hybrid. A robot with remote control programming has a preexisting set of commands that it will only perform if and when it receives a signal from a control source, typically a human being with remote control. It is perhaps more appropriate to view devices controlled primarily by human commands as falling in the discipline of automation rather than robotics. Robots that use artificial intelligence interact with their environment on their own without a control source, and can determine reactions to objects and problems they encounter using their preexisting programming. A hybrid is a form of programming that incorporates both AI and RC functions in them.

Applied robotics[edit]

As more and more robots are designed for specific tasks, this method of classification becomes more relevant. For example, many robots are designed for assembly work, which may not be readily adaptable for other applications. They are termed "assembly robots". For seam welding, some suppliers provide complete welding systems with the robot i.e. the welding equipment along with other material handling facilities like turntables, etc. as an integrated unit. Such an integrated robotic system is called a "welding robot" even though its discrete manipulator unit could be adapted to a variety of tasks. Some robots are specifically designed for heavy load manipulation, and are labeled as "heavy-duty robots".[3]

Current and potential applications include:

Manufacturing. Robots have been increasingly used in manufacturing since the 1960s. According to the Robotic Industries Association US data, in 2016 the automotive industry was the main customer of industrial robots with 52% of total sales.[4] In the auto industry, they can amount for more than half of the "labor". There are even "lights off" factories such as an IBM keyboard manufacturing factory in Texas that was fully automated as early as 2003.[5]

Autonomous transport including self-driving cars and airplane autopilot

Domestic robots including Robotic vacuum cleaners

Construction robots. Construction robots can be separated into three types: traditional robots, robotic arm, and robotic exoskeleton.[6]

Agricultural robots.[7] The use of robots in agriculture is closely linked to the concept of AI-assisted precision agriculture and drone usage.[8]

Medical robots of various types (such as da Vinci Surgical System and Hospi); and Robot-assisted surgery designed and used in clinics.[9]

Food processing. Commercial examples of kitchen automation are Flippy (burgers), Zume Pizza (pizza), Cafe X (coffee), Makr Shakr (cocktails), Frobot (frozen yogurts), Sally (salads),[10] salad or food bowl robots manufactured by Dexai (a Draper Laboratory spinoff, operating on military bases), and integrated food bowl assembly systems manufactured by Spyce Kitchen (acquired by Sweetgreen) and Silicon Valley startup Hyphen.[11] Home examples are Rotimatic (flatbreads baking)[12] and Boris (dishwasher loading).[13] Other examples may include manufacturing technologies based on 3D Food Printing.

Automated mining

Space exploration, including Mars rovers

Cleanup of contaminated areas, such as toxic waste or nuclear facilities.[a]

Robotic lawn mowers and Sports field line marking.

Robot sports for entertainment and education, including Robot combat, Autonomous racing, drone racing, and FIRST Robotics

Military robots.

Components[edit]

Power source[edit]

Further information: Power supply and Energy storage

The InSight lander with solar panels deployed in a cleanroom

At present, mostly (lead–acid) batteries are used as a power source. Many different types of batteries can be used as a power source for robots. They range from lead–acid batteries, which are safe and have relatively long shelf lives but are rather heavy compared to silver–cadmium batteries which are much smaller in volume and are currently much more expensive. Designing a battery-powered robot needs to take into account factors such as safety, cycle lifetime, and weight. Generators, often some type of internal combustion engine, can also be used. However, such designs are often mechanically complex and need fuel, require heat dissipation, and are relatively heavy. A tether connecting the robot to a power supply would remove the power supply from the robot entirely. This has the advantage of saving weight and space by moving all power generation and storage components elsewhere. However, this design does come with the drawback of constantly having a cable connected to the robot, which can be difficult to manage.[15]

Potential power sources could be:

pneumatic (compressed gases)

Solar power (using the sun's energy and converting it into electrical power)

hydraulics (liquids)

flywheel energy storage

organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion)

nuclear

Actuation[edit]

Main article: Actuator

A robotic leg powered by air muscles

Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement.[16] By far the most popular actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories. There are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity, chemicals, or compressed air.

Electric motors[edit]

Main article: Electric motor

The vast majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless DC motors in portable robots or AC motors in industrial robots and CNC machines. These motors are often preferred in systems with lighter loads, and where the predominant form of motion is rotational.

Linear actuators[edit]

Main article: Linear actuator

Various types of linear actuators move in and out instead of by spinning, and often have quicker direction changes, particularly when very large forces are needed such as with industrial robotics. They are typically powered by compressed and oxidized air (pneumatic actuator) or an oil (hydraulic actuator) Linear actuators can also be powered by electricity which usually consists of a motor and a leadscrew. Another common type is a mechanical linear actuator such as a rack and pinion on a car.

Series elastic actuators[edit]

Series elastic actuation (SEA) relies on the idea of introducing intentional elasticity between the motor actuator and the load for robust force control. Due to the resultant lower reflected inertia, series elastic actuation improves safety when a robot interacts with the environment (e.g., humans or workpieces) or during collisions.[17] Furthermore, it also provides energy efficiency and shock absorption (mechanical filtering) while reducing excessive wear on the transmission and other mechanical components. This approach has successfully been employed in various robots, particularly advanced manufacturing robots[18] and walking humanoid robots.[19][20]

The controller design of a series elastic actuator is most often performed within the passivity framework as it ensures the safety of interaction with unstructured environments.[21] Despite its remarkable stability and robustness, this framework suffers from the stringent limitations imposed on the controller which may trade-off performance. The reader is referred to the following survey which summarizes the common controller architectures for SEA along with the corresponding sufficient passivity conditions.[22] One recent study has derived the necessary and sufficient passivity conditions for one of the most common impedance control architectures, namely velocity-sourced SEA.[23] This work is of particular importance as it drives the non-conservative passivity bounds in an SEA scheme for the first time which allows a larger selection of control gains.

Air muscles[edit]

Main article: Pneumatic artificial muscles

Pneumatic artificial muscles also known as air muscles, are special tubes that expand (typically up to 42%) when air is forced inside them. They are used in some robot applications.[24][25][26]

Wire muscles[edit]

Main article: Shape memory alloy

Muscle wire, also known as shape memory alloy, Nitinol® or Flexinol® wire, is a material that contracts (under 5%) when electricity is applied. They have been used for some small robot applications.[27][28]

Electroactive polymers[edit]

Main article: Electroactive polymers

EAPs or EPAMs are a plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380% activation strain) from electricity, and have been used in facial muscles and arms of humanoid robots,[29] and to enable new robots to float,[30] fly, swim or walk.[31]

Piezo motors[edit]

Main article: Piezoelectric motor

Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vibrating many thousands of times per second, cause linear or rotary motion. There are different mechanisms of operation; one type uses the vibration of the piezo elements to step the motor in a circle or a straight line.[32] Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to vibrate or to drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and available force for their size.[33] These motors are already available commercially and being used on some robots.[34][35]

Elastic nanotubes[edit]

Further information: Carbon nanotube

Elastic nanotubes are a promising artificial muscle technology in early-stage experimental development. The absence of defects in carbon nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10 J/cm3 for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8 mm diameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robots to outrun and outjump humans.[36]

Sensing[edit]

Main articles: Robotic sensing and Robotic sensors

Sensors allow robots to receive information about a certain measurement of the environment, or internal components. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks, and act upon any changes in the environment to calculate the appropriate response. They are used for various forms of measurements, to give the robots warnings about safety or malfunctions, and to provide real-time information about the task it is performing.

Touch[edit]

Main article: Tactile sensor

Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips.[37][38] The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting the robotic grip on held objects.

Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in 2009, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one —allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano, and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feelings in its fingertips.[39]

Further information: Sensory-motor map

Other[edit]

Other common forms of sensing in robotics use lidar, radar, and sonar.[40] Lidar measures the distance to a target by illuminating the target with laser light and measuring the reflected light with a sensor. Radar uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. Sonar uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water.

Manipulation[edit]

KUKA industrial robot operating in a foundry

Puma, one of the first industrial robots

Baxter, a modern and versatile industrial robot developed by Rodney Brooks

Lefty, first checker playing robot

Further information: Mobile manipulator

A definition of robotic manipulation has been provided by Matt Mason as: "manipulation refers to an agent's control of its environment through selective contact".[41]

Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, move or otherwise have an effect. Thus the functional end of a robot arm intended to make the effect (whether a hand, or tool) are often referred to as end effectors,[42] while the "arm" is referred to as a manipulator.[43] Most robot arms have replaceable end-effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator that cannot be replaced, while a few have one very general-purpose manipulator, for example, a humanoid hand.[44]

Mechanical grippers[edit]

One of the most common types of end-effectors are "grippers". In its simplest manifestation, it consists of just two fingers that can open and close to pick up and let go of a range of small objects. Fingers can, for example, be made of a chain with a metal wire running through it.[45] Hands that resemble and work more like a human hand include the Shadow Hand and the Robonaut hand.[46] Hands that are of a mid-level complexity include the Delft hand.[47][48] Mechanical grippers can come in various types, including friction and encompassing jaws. Friction jaws use all the force of the gripper to hold the object in place using friction. Encompassing jaws cradle the object in place, using less friction.

Suction end-effectors[edit]

Suction end-effectors, powered by vacuum generators, are very simple astrictive[49] devices that can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.

Pick and place robots for electronic components and for large objects like car windscreens, often use very simple vacuum end-effectors.

Suction is a highly used type of end-effector in industry, in part because the natural compliance of soft suction end-effectors can enable a robot to be more robust in the presence of imperfect robotic perception. As an example: consider the case of a robot vision system that estimates the position of a water bottle but has 1 centimeter of error. While this may cause a rigid mechanical gripper to puncture the water bottle, the soft suction end-effector may just bend slightly and conform to the shape of the water bottle surface.

General purpose effectors[edit]

Some advanced robots are beginning to use fully humanoid hands, like the Shadow Hand, MANUS,[50] and the Schunk hand.[51] They have powerful robot dexterity intelligence (RDI), with as many as 20 degrees of freedom and hundreds of tactile sensors.[52]

Locomotion[edit]

Main articles: Robot locomotion and Mobile robot

Rolling robots[edit]

Segway in the Robot museum in Nagoya

For simplicity, most mobile robots have four wheels or a number of continuous tracks. Some researchers have tried to create more complex wheeled robots with only one or two wheels. These can have certain advantages such as greater efficiency and reduced parts, as well as allowing a robot to navigate in confined places that a four-wheeled robot would not be able to.

Two-wheeled balancing robots[edit]

Balancing robots generally use a gyroscope to detect how much a robot is falling and then drive the wheels proportionally in the same direction, to counterbalance the fall at hundreds of times per second, based on the dynamics of an inverted pendulum.[53] Many different balancing robots have been designed.[54] While the Segway is not commonly thought of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of a robot, when used as such Segway refer to them as RMP (Robotic Mobility Platform). An example of this use has been as NASA's Robonaut that has been mounted on a Segway.[55]

One-wheeled balancing robots[edit]

Main article: Self-balancing unicycle

A one-wheeled balancing robot is an extension of a two-wheeled balancing robot so that it can move in any 2D direction using a round ball as its only wheel. Several one-wheeled balancing robots have been designed recently, such as Carnegie Mellon University's "Ballbot" which is the approximate height and width of a person, and Tohoku Gakuin University's "BallIP".[56] Because of the long, thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight spaces, they have the potential to function better than other robots in environments with people.[57]

Spherical orb robots[edit]

Main article: Spherical robot

Several attempts have been made in robots that are completely inside a spherical ball, either by spinning a weight inside the ball,[58][59] or by rotating the outer shells of the sphere.[60][61] These have also been referred to as an orb bot[62] or a ball bot.[63][64]

Six-wheeled robots[edit]

Using six wheels instead of four wheels can give better traction or grip in outdoor terrain such as on rocky dirt or grass.

Tracked robots[edit]

TALON military robots used by the United States Army

Tank tracks provide even more traction than a six-wheeled robot. Tracked wheels behave as if they were made of hundreds of wheels, therefore are very common for outdoor and military robots, where the robot must drive on very rough terrain. However, they are difficult to use indoors such as on carpets and smooth floors. Examples include NASA's Urban Robot "Urbie".[65]

Walking robots[edit]

Further information: Mantis the spider robot

Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been made which can walk reliably on two legs, however, none have yet been made which are as robust as a human. There has been much study on human-inspired walking, such as AMBER lab which was established in 2008 by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Texas A&M University.[66] Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs, due to these robots being significantly easier to construct.[67][68] Walking robots can be used for uneven terrains, which would provide better mobility and energy efficiency than other locomotion methods. Typically, robots on two legs can walk well on flat floors and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:

ZMP technique[edit]

Main article: Zero moment point

The zero moment point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of Earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over).[69] However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is obvious to human observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs the lavatory.[70][71][72] ASIMO's walking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (see below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk on.

Hopping[edit]

Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself.[73] Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults.[74] A quadruped was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound.[75] For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.[76]

Dynamic balancing (controlled falling)[edit]

A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially more robust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot's motion, and places the feet in order to maintain stability.[77] This technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter Robot,[78] which is so stable, it can even jump.[79] Another example is the TU Delft Flame.

Passive dynamics[edit]

Main article: Passive dynamics

Perhaps the most promising approach uses passive dynamics where the momentum of swinging limbs is used for greater efficiency. It has been shown that totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down a gentle slope, using only gravity to propel themselves. Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small amount of motor power to walk along a flat surface or a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises to make walking robots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.[80][81]

Other methods of locomotion[edit]

Flying[edit]

A modern passenger airliner is essentially a flying robot, with two humans to manage it. The autopilot can control the plane for each stage of the journey, including takeoff, normal flight, and even landing.[82] Other flying robots are uninhabited and are known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They can be smaller and lighter without a human pilot on board, and fly into dangerous territory for military surveillance missions. Some can even fire on targets under command. UAVs are also being developed which can fire on targets automatically, without the need for a command from a human. Other flying robots include cruise missiles, the Entomopter, and the Epson micro helicopter robot. Robots such as the Air Penguin, Air Ray, and Air Jelly have lighter-than-air bodies, are propelled by paddles, and are guided by sonar.

Biomimetic flying robots (BFRs)[edit]

A flapping wing BFR generating lift and thrust.

BFRs take inspiration from flying mammals, birds, or insects. BFRs can have flapping wings, which generate the lift and thrust, or they can be propeller actuated. BFRs with flapping wings have increased stroke efficiencies, increased maneuverability, and reduced energy consumption in comparison to propeller actuated BFRs.[83] Mammal and bird inspired BFRs share similar flight characteristics and design considerations. For instance, both mammal and bird inspired BFRs minimize edge fluttering and pressure-induced wingtip curl by increasing the rigidity of the wing edge and wingtips. Mammal and insect inspired BFRs can be impact resistant, making them useful in cluttered environments.

Mammal inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from bats, but the flying squirrel has also inspired a prototype.[84] Examples of bat inspired BFRs include Bat Bot[85] and the DALER.[86] Mammal inspired BFRs can be designed to be multi-modal; therefore, they're capable of both flight and terrestrial movement. To reduce the impact of landing, shock absorbers can be implemented along the wings.[86] Alternatively, the BFR can pitch up and increase the amount of drag it experiences.[84] By increasing the drag force, the BFR will decelerate and minimize the impact upon grounding. Different land gait patterns can also be implemented.[84]

Dragonfly inspired BFR.

Bird inspired BFRs can take inspiration from raptors, gulls, and everything in-between. Bird inspired BFRs can be feathered to increase the angle of attack range over which the prototype can operate before stalling.[87] The wings of bird inspired BFRs allow for in-plane deformation, and the in-plane wing deformation can be adjusted to maximize flight efficiency depending on the flight gait.[87] An example of a raptor inspired BFR is the prototype by Savastano et al.[88] The prototype has fully deformable flapping wings and is capable of carrying a payload of up to 0.8 kg while performing a parabolic climb, steep descent, and rapid recovery. The gull inspired prototype by Grant et al. accurately mimics the elbow and wrist rotation of gulls, and they find that lift generation is maximized when the elbow and wrist deformations are opposite but equal.[89]

Insect inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from beetles or dragonflies. An example of a beetle inspired BFR is the prototype by Phan and Park,[90] and a dragonfly inspired BFR is the prototype by Hu et al.[91] The flapping frequency of insect inspired BFRs are much higher than those of other BFRs; this is because of the aerodynamics of insect flight.[92] Insect inspired BFRs are much smaller than those inspired by mammals or birds, so they are more suitable for dense environments.

Biologically-inspired flying robots[edit]

Visualization of entomopter flying on Mars (NASA)

A class of robots that are biologically inspired, but which do not attempt to mimic biology, are creations such as the Entomopter. Funded by DARPA, NASA, the United States Air Force, and the Georgia Tech Research Institute and patented by Prof. Robert C. Michelson for covert terrestrial missions as well as flight in the lower Mars atmosphere, the Entomopter flight propulsion system uses low Reynolds number wings similar to those of the hawk moth (Manduca sexta), but flaps them in a non-traditional "opposed x-wing fashion" while "blowing" the surface to enhance lift based on the Coandă effect as well as to control vehicle attitude and direction. Waste gas from the propulsion system not only facilitates the blown wing aerodynamics, but also serves to create ultrasonic emissions like that of a Bat for obstacle avoidance. The Entomopter and other biologically-inspired robots leverage features of biological systems, but do not attempt to create mechanical analogs.

Snaking[edit]

Two robot snakes. The left one has 64 motors (with 2 degrees of freedom per segment), the right one 10.

Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking the way real snakes move, these robots can navigate very confined spaces, meaning they may one day be used to search for people trapped in collapsed buildings.[93] The Japanese ACM-R5 snake robot[94] can even navigate both on land and in water.[95]

Skating[edit]

A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of which is a multi-mode walking and skating device. It has four legs, with unpowered wheels, which can either step or roll.[96] Another robot, Plen, can use a miniature skateboard or roller-skates, and skate across a desktop.[97]

Capuchin, a climbing robot

Climbing[edit]

Several different approaches have been used to develop robots that have the ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimics the movements of a human climber on a wall with protrusions; adjusting the center of mass and moving each limb in turn to gain leverage. An example of this is Capuchin,[98] built by Ruixiang Zhang at Stanford University, California. Another approach uses the specialized toe pad method of wall-climbing geckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such as vertical glass. Examples of this approach include Wallbot[99] and Stickybot.[100]

China's Technology Daily reported on 15 November 2008, that Li Hiu Yeung and his research group of New Concept Aircraft (Zhuhai) Co., Ltd. had successfully developed a bionic gecko robot named "Speedy Freelander". According to Yeung, the gecko robot could rapidly climb up and down a variety of building walls, navigate through ground and wall fissures, and walk upside-down on the ceiling. It was also able to adapt to the surfaces of smooth glass, rough, sticky or dusty walls as well as various types of metallic materials. It could also identify and circumvent obstacles automatically. Its flexibility and speed were comparable to a natural gecko. A third approach is to mimic the motion of a snake climbing a pole.[40]

Swimming (Piscine)[edit]

It is calculated that when swimming some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%.[101] Furthermore, they can accelerate and maneuver far better than any man-made boat or submarine, and produce less noise and water disturbance. Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robots would like to copy this type of locomotion.[102] Notable examples are the Essex University Computer Science Robotic Fish G9,[103] and the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion.[104] The Aqua Penguin,[105] designed and built by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front "flippers" of penguins. Festo have also built the Aqua Ray and Aqua Jelly, which emulate the locomotion of manta ray, and jellyfish, respectively.

Robotic Fish: iSplash-II

In 2014, iSplash-II was developed by PhD student Richard James Clapham and Prof. Huosheng Hu at Essex University. It was the first robotic fish capable of outperforming real carangiform fish in terms of average maximum velocity (measured in body lengths/ second) and endurance, the duration that top speed is maintained.[106] This build attained swimming speeds of 11.6BL/s (i.e. 3.7 m/s).[107] The first build, iSplash-I (2014) was the first robotic platform to apply a full-body length carangiform swimming motion which was found to increase swimming speed by 27% over the traditional approach of a posterior confined waveform.[108]

Sailing[edit]

The autonomous sailboat robot Vaimos

Sailboat robots have also been developed in order to make measurements at the surface of the ocean. A typical sailboat robot is Vaimos[109] built by IFREMER and ENSTA-Bretagne. Since the propulsion of sailboat robots uses the wind, the energy of the batteries is only used for the computer, for the communication and for the actuators (to tune the rudder and the sail). If the robot is equipped with solar panels, the robot could theoretically navigate forever. The two main competitions of sailboat robots are WRSC, which takes place every year in Europe, and Sailbot.

Control[edit]

Puppet Magnus, a robot-manipulated marionette with complex control systems

Experimental planar robot arm and sensor-based, open-architecture robot controller developed at Sunderland University, UK in 2000

RuBot II can manually resolve Rubik's cubes.

Further information: Control systemThe mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks.[110] The control of a robot involves three distinct phases – perception, processing, and action (robotic paradigms).[111] Sensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints or its end effector). This information is then processed to be stored or transmitted and to calculate the appropriate signals to the actuators (motors), which move the mechanical structure to achieve the required co-ordinated motion or force actions.

The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it may translate raw sensor information directly into actuator commands (e.g. firing motor power electronic gates based directly upon encoder feedback signals to achieve the required torque/velocity of the shaft). Sensor fusion and internal models may first be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the position of the robot's gripper) from noisy sensor data. An immediate task (such as moving the gripper in a certain direction until an object is detected with a proximity sensor) is sometimes inferred from these estimates. Techniques from control theory are generally used to convert the higher-level tasks into individual commands that drive the actuators, most often using kinematic and dynamic models of the mechanical structure.[110][111][112]

At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks, the robot may need to build and reason with a "cognitive" model. Cognitive models try to represent the robot, the world, and how the two interact. Pattern recognition and computer vision can be used to track objects.[110] Mapping techniques can be used to build maps of the world. Finally, motion planning and other artificial intelligence techniques may be used to figure out how to act. For example, a planner may figure out how to achieve a task without hitting obstacles, falling over, etc.

Modern commercial robotic control systems are highly complex, integrate multiple sensors and effectors, have many interacting degrees-of-freedom (DOF) and require operator interfaces, programming tools and real-time capabilities.[111] They are oftentimes interconnected to wider communication networks and in many cases are now both IoT-enabled and mobile.[113] Progress towards open architecture, layered, user-friendly and 'intelligent' sensor-based interconnected robots has emerged from earlier concepts related to Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS), and several 'open or 'hybrid' reference architectures exist which assist developers of robot control software and hardware to move beyond traditional, earlier notions of 'closed' robot control systems have been proposed.[112] Open architecture controllers are said to be better able to meet the growing requirements of a wide range of robot users, including system developers, end users and research scientists, and are better positioned to deliver the advanced robotic concepts related to Industry 4.0.[112] In addition to utilizing many established features of robot controllers, such as position, velocity and force control of end effectors, they also enable IoT interconnection and the implementation of more advanced sensor fusion and control techniques, including adaptive control, Fuzzy control and Artificial Neural Network (ANN)-based control.[112] When implemented in real-time, such techniques can potentially improve the stability and performance of robots operating in unknown or uncertain environments by enabling the control systems to learn and adapt to environmental changes.[114] There are several examples of reference architectures for robot controllers, and also examples of successful implementations of actual robot controllers developed from them. One example of a generic reference architecture and associated interconnected, open-architecture robot and controller implementation was developed by Michael Short and colleagues at the University of Sunderland in the UK in 2000 (pictured right).[112] The robot was used in a number of research and development studies, including prototype implementation of novel advanced and intelligent control and environment mapping methods in real-time.[114][115]

Automation[edit]

TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo IREX 2009.[116]

Control systems may also have varying levels of autonomy.

Direct interaction is used for haptic or teleoperated devices, and the human has nearly complete control over the robot's motion.

Operator-assist modes have the operator commanding medium-to-high-level tasks, with the robot automatically figuring out how to achieve them.[117]

An autonomous robot may go without human interaction for extended periods of time . Higher levels of autonomy do not necessarily require more complex cognitive capabilities. For example, robots in assembly plants are completely autonomous but operate in a fixed pattern.

Another classification takes into account the interaction between human control and the machine motions.

Teleoperation. A human controls each movement, each machine actuator change is specified by the operator.

Supervisory. A human specifies general moves or position changes and the machine decides specific movements of its actuators.

Task-level autonomy. The operator specifies only the task and the robot manages itself to complete it.

Full autonomy. The machine will create and complete all its tasks without human interaction.

Vision[edit]

Main article: Computer vision

Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences and views from cameras.

In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common.

Computer vision systems rely on image sensors that detect electromagnetic radiation which is typically in the form of either visible light or infra-red light. The sensors are designed using solid-state physics. The process by which light propagates and reflects off surfaces is explained using optics. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Robots can also be equipped with multiple vision sensors to be better able to compute the sense of depth in the environment. Like human eyes, robots' "eyes" must also be able to focus on a particular area of interest, and also adjust to variations in light intensities.

There is a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behavior of biological system, at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision have a background in biology.

Environmental interaction and navigation[edit]

Main articles: Robotic mapping and Robotic navigation

Radar, GPS, and lidar, are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacle avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge).

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Though a significant percentage of robots in commission today are either human controlled or operate in a static environment, there is an increasing interest in robots that can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment. These robots require some combination of navigation hardware and software in order to traverse their environment. In particular, unforeseen events (e.g. people and other obstacles that are not stationary) can cause problems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots such as ASIMO and Meinü robot have particularly good robot navigation hardware and software. Also, self-controlled cars, Ernst Dickmanns' driverless car, and the entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge, are capable of sensing the environment well and subsequently making navigational decisions based on this information, including by a swarm of autonomous robots.[118] Most of these robots employ a GPS navigation device with waypoints, along with radar, sometimes combined with other sensory data such as lidar, video cameras, and inertial guidance systems for better navigation between waypoints.

Human-robot interaction[edit]

Main article: Human-robot interaction

Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.

The state of the art in sensory intelligence for robots will have to progress through several orders of magnitude if we want the robots working in our homes to go beyond vacuum-cleaning the floors. If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capable of communicating with humans through speech, gestures, and facial expressions, rather than a command-line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to communicate, it is unnatural for the robot. It will probably be a long time before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C-3PO, or Data of Star Trek, Next Generation. Even though the current state of robotics cannot meet the standards of these robots from science-fiction, robotic media characters (e.g., Wall-E, R2-D2) can elicit audience sympathies that increase people's willingness to accept actual robots in the future.[119] Acceptance of social robots is also likely to increase if people can meet a social robot under appropriate conditions. Studies have shown that interacting with a robot by looking at, touching, or even imagining interacting with the robot can reduce negative feelings that some people have about robots before interacting with them.[120] However, if pre-existing negative sentiments are especially strong, interacting with a robot can increase those negative feelings towards robots.[120]

Speech recognition[edit]

Main article: Speech recognition

Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech.[121] The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent.[122] Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952.[123] Currently, the best systems can recognize continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%.[124] With the help of artificial intelligence, machines nowadays can use people's voice to identify their emotions such as satisfied or angry.[125]

Robotic voice[edit]

Other hurdles exist when allowing the robot to use voice for interacting with humans. For social reasons, synthetic voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium,[126] making it necessary to develop the emotional component of robotic voice through various techniques.[127][128] An advantage of diphonic branching is the emotion that the robot is programmed to project, can be carried on the voice tape, or phoneme, already pre-programmed onto the voice media. One of the earliest examples is a teaching robot named Leachim developed in 1974 by Michael J. Freeman.[129][130] Leachim was able to convert digital memory to rudimentary verbal speech on pre-recorded computer discs.[131] It was programmed to teach students in The Bronx, New York.[131]

Gestures[edit]

Further information: Gesture recognition

One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. In both of these cases, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the first case, the robot would be recognizing gestures made by the human, and perhaps repeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots.[132] A great many systems have been developed to recognize human hand gestures.[133]

Facial expression[edit]

Further information: Emotion recognition

Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon may be able to do the same for humans and robots. Robotic faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics using their elastic polymer called Frubber, allowing a large number of facial expressions due to the elasticity of the rubber facial coating and embedded subsurface motors (servos).[134] The coating and servos are built on a metal skull. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazy-looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, robots like Kismet and the more recent addition, Nexi[135] can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.[136]

Artificial emotions[edit]

Artificial emotions can also be generated, composed of a sequence of facial expressions or gestures. As can be seen from the movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, the programming of these artificial emotions is complex and requires a large amount of human observation. To simplify this programming in the movie, presets were created together with a special software program. This decreased the amount of time needed to make the film. These presets could possibly be transferred for use in real-life robots. An example of a robot with artificial emotions is Robin the Robot developed by an Armenian IT company Expper Technologies, which uses AI-based peer-to-peer interaction. Its main task is achieving emotional well-being, i.e. overcome stress and anxiety. Robin was trained to analyze facial expressions and use his face to display his emotions given the context. The robot has been tested by kids in US clinics, and observations show that Robin increased the appetite and cheerfulness of children after meeting and talking.[137]

Personality[edit]

Many of the robots of science fiction have a personality, something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future.[138] Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have a personality:[139][140] i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to try to convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparent emotions.[141]

Proxemics[edit]

Proxemics is the study of personal space, and HRI systems may try to model and work with its concepts for human interactions.

Research robotics[edit]

Further information: Areas of robotics

Two Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineers stand with three vehicles, providing a size comparison of three generations of Mars rovers. Front and center is the flight spare for the first Mars rover, Sojourner, which landed on Mars in 1997 as part of the Mars Pathfinder Project. On the left is a Mars Exploration Rover (MER) test vehicle that is a working sibling to Spirit and Opportunity, which landed on Mars in 2004. On the right is a test rover for the Mars Science Laboratory, which landed Curiosity on Mars in 2012. Sojourner is 65 cm (2.13 ft) long. The Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) are 1.6 m (5.2 ft) long. Curiosity on the right is 3 m (9.8 ft) long.

Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robots, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. Other investigations, such as MIT's cyberflora project, are almost wholly academic.

To describe the level of advancement of a robot, the term "Generation Robots" can be used. This term is coined by Professor Hans Moravec, Principal Research Scientist at the Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute in describing the near future evolution of robot technology. First-generation robots, Moravec predicted in 1997, should have an intellectual capacity comparable to perhaps a lizard and should become available by 2010. Because the first generation robot would be incapable of learning, however, Moravec predicts that the second generation robot would be an improvement over the first and become available by 2020, with the intelligence maybe comparable to that of a mouse. The third generation robot should have intelligence comparable to that of a monkey. Though fourth generation robots, robots with human intelligence, professor Moravec predicts, would become possible, he does not predict this happening before around 2040 or 2050.[142]

Dynamics and kinematics[edit]

Further information: Kinematics and Dynamics (mechanics)

External videos How the BB-8 Sphero Toy Works

The study of motion can be divided into kinematics and dynamics.[143] Direct kinematics or forward kinematics refers to the calculation of end effector position, orientation, velocity, and acceleration when the corresponding joint values are known. Inverse kinematics refers to the opposite case in which required joint values are calculated for given end effector values, as done in path planning. Some special aspects of kinematics include handling of redundancy (different possibilities of performing the same movement), collision avoidance, and singularity avoidance. Once all relevant positions, velocities, and accelerations have been calculated using kinematics, methods from the field of dynamics are used to study the effect of forces upon these movements. Direct dynamics refers to the calculation of accelerations in the robot once the applied forces are known. Direct dynamics is used in computer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics refers to the calculation of the actuator forces necessary to create a prescribed end-effector acceleration. This information can be used to improve the control algorithms of a robot.

In each area mentioned above, researchers strive to develop new concepts and strategies, improve existing ones, and improve the interaction between these areas. To do this, criteria for "optimal" performance and ways to optimize design, structure, and control of robots must be developed and implemented.

Open source robotics[edit]

Further information: Open source robotics

Open source robotics research seeks standards for defining, and methods for designing and building, robots so that they can easily be reproduced by anyone. Research includes legal and technical definitions; seeking out alternative tools and materials to reduce costs and simplify builds; and creating interfaces and standards for designs to work together. Human usability research also investigates how to best document builds through visual, text or video instructions.

Evolutionary robotics[edit]

Evolutionary robots is a methodology that uses evolutionary computation to help design robots, especially the body form, or motion and behavior controllers. In a similar way to natural evolution, a large population of robots is allowed to compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using a fitness function. Those that perform worst are removed from the population and replaced by a new set, which have new behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the population improves, and eventually a satisfactory robot may appear. This happens without any direct programming of the robots by the researchers. Researchers use this method both to create better robots,[144] and to explore the nature of evolution.[145] Because the process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated,[146] this technique may be run entirely or mostly in simulation, using a robot simulator software package, then tested on real robots once the evolved algorithms are good enough.[147] Currently, there are about 10 million industrial robots toiling around the world, and Japan is the top country having high density of utilizing robots in its manufacturing industry.[citation needed]

Bionics and biomimetics[edit]

Bionics and biomimetics apply the physiology and methods of locomotion of animals to the design of robots. For example, the design of BionicKangaroo was based on the way kangaroos jump.

Swarm robotics[edit]

Swarm robotics is an approach to the coordination of multiple robots as a system which consist of large numbers of mostly simple physical robots. ″In a robot swarm, the collective behavior of the robots results from local interactions between the robots and between the robots and the environment in which they act.″* [118]

Quantum computing[edit]

There has been some research into whether robotics algorithms can be run more quickly on quantum computers than they can be run on digital computers. This area has been referred to as quantum robotics.[148]

Other research areas[edit]

Nanorobots.

Cobots (collaborative robots).[149]

Autonomous drones.

High temperature crucibles allow robotic systems to automate sample analysis.[150]

The main venues for robotics research are the international conferences ICRA and IROS.

Human factors[edit]

Education and training[edit]

Main article: Educational robotics

The SCORBOT-ER 4u educational robot

Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, develop new applications for them, and conduct research to expand the potential of robotics.[151] Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high schools, particularly in parts of the USA,[152] as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest in programming, artificial intelligence, and robotics among students.

Employment[edit]

A robot technician builds small all-terrain robots (courtesy: MobileRobots, Inc.).

Main article: Technological unemployment

Robotics is an essential component in many modern manufacturing environments. As factories increase their use of robots, the number of robotics–related jobs grow and have been observed to be steadily rising.[153] The employment of robots in industries has increased productivity and efficiency savings and is typically seen as a long-term investment for benefactors. A study found that 47 percent of US jobs are at risk to automation "over some unspecified number of years".[154] These claims have been criticized on the ground that social policy, not AI, causes unemployment.[155] In a 2016 article in The Guardian, Stephen Hawking stated "The automation of factories has already decimated jobs in traditional manufacturing, and the rise of artificial intelligence is likely to extend this job destruction deep into the middle classes, with only the most caring, creative or supervisory roles remaining".[156]

According to a GlobalData September 2021 report, the robotics industry was worth $45bn in 2020, and by 2030, it will have grown at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 29% to $568bn, driving jobs in robotics and related industries.[157]

Occupational safety and health implications[edit]

Main article: Workplace robotics safety

A discussion paper drawn up by EU-OSHA highlights how the spread of robotics presents both opportunities and challenges for occupational safety and health (OSH).[158]

The greatest OSH benefits stemming from the wider use of robotics should be substitution for people working in unhealthy or dangerous environments. In space, defense, security, or the nuclear industry, but also in logistics, maintenance, and inspection, autonomous robots are particularly useful in replacing human workers performing dirty, dull or unsafe tasks, thus avoiding workers' exposures to hazardous agents and conditions and reducing physical, ergonomic and psychosocial risks. For example, robots are already used to perform repetitive and monotonous tasks, to handle radioactive material or to work in explosive atmospheres. In the future, many other highly repetitive, risky or unpleasant tasks will be performed by robots in a variety of sectors like agriculture, construction, transport, healthcare, firefighting or cleaning services.[159]

Moreover, there are certain skills to which humans will be better suited than machines for some time to come and the question is how to achieve the best combination of human and robot skills. The advantages of robotics include heavy-duty jobs with precision and repeatability, whereas the advantages of humans include creativity, decision-making, flexibility, and adaptability. This need to combine optimal skills has resulted in collaborative robots and humans sharing a common workspace more closely and led to the development of new approaches and standards to guarantee the safety of the "man-robot merger". Some European countries are including robotics in their national programs and trying to promote a safe and flexible cooperation between robots and operators to achieve better productivity. For example, the German Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA) organises annual workshops on the topic "human-robot collaboration".

In the future, cooperation between robots and humans will be diversified, with robots increasing their autonomy and human-robot collaboration reaching completely new forms. Current approaches and technical standards[160][161] aiming to protect employees from the risk of working with collaborative robots will have to be revised.

User experience[edit]

Great user experience predicts the needs, experiences, behaviors, language and cognitive abilities, and other factors of each user group. It then uses these insights to produce a product or solution that is ultimately useful and usable. For robots, user experience begins with an understanding of the robot's intended task and environment, while considering any possible social impact the robot may have on human operations and interactions with it.[162]

It defines that communication as the transmission of information through signals, which are elements perceived through touch, sound, smell and sight.[163] The author states that the signal connects the sender to the receiver and consists of three parts: the signal itself, what it refers to, and the interpreter. Body postures and gestures, facial expressions, hand and head movements are all part of nonverbal behavior and communication. Robots are no exception when it comes to human-robot interaction. Therefore, humans use their verbal and nonverbal behaviors to communicate their defining characteristics. Similarly, social robots need this coordination to perform human-like behaviors.

Careers[edit]

Robotics is an interdisciplinary field, combining primarily mechanical engineering and computer science but also drawing on electronic engineering and other subjects. The usual way to build a career in robotics is to complete an undergraduate degree in one of these established subjects, followed by a graduate (masters') degree in Robotics. Graduate degrees are typically joined by students coming from all of the contributing disciplines, and include familiarization of relevant undergraduate level subject matter from each of them, followed by specialist study in pure robotics topics which build upon them. As an interdisciplinary subject, robotics graduate programmes tend to be especially reliant on students working and learning together and sharing their knowledge and skills from their home discipline first degrees.

Robotics industry careers then follow the same pattern, with most roboticists working as part of interdisciplinary teams of specialists from these home disciplines followed by the robotics graduate degrees which enable them to work together. Workers typically continue to identify as members of their home disciplines who work in robotics, rather than as 'roboticists'. This structure is reinforced by the nature of some engineering professions, which grant chartered engineer status to members of home disciplines rather than to robotics as a whole.

Robotics careers are widely predicted to grow during in the 21st century, as robots replace more manual and intellectual human work. Workers who lose their jobs to robotics may be well-placed to retrain to build and maintain these robots, using their domain-specific knowledge and skills.

History[edit]

What is a Robot?

is a Robot?EducationSign InMenuDonateARTICLEARTICLEWhat is a Robot?What is a Robot?Learn about the three essential ingredients that make robots special.Grades5 - 12SubjectsEngineeringImagerobots 3d landing pagePhotograph courtesy National Geographic EntertainmentProgramBackground InfoVocabularyWhen you think of a robot, what do you see? A machine that looks a bit like you and me? The reality is that robots can come in many different shapes and sizes. They don’t need to look like humans—in fact, most don’t. What a robot looks like depends on its purpose. Flying robots might look like helicopters, or have wings like insects or birds. Cleaning robots often look like little vacuums. Robots that are meant to interact with people often have a face, eyes, or a mouth—just like we do! Whether they look like us or not, most robots have three essential ingredients that make them a robot: sensors, actuators, and programs. Together, these ingredients are what make a robot different from other electronics and gadgets you might have around your house, like your computer, your washing machine, or your toaster. Sensors, Actuators, and Programs First, a robot has sensors that allow it to perceive the world. Just like we have eyes to sense light, ears to sense sound, and nerves in our skin that sense if something is touching us, robots have light sensors and cameras so they can “see,” microphones so they can “hear,” and pressure sensors so they can “feel” the things around them. The kinds of sensors that a robot needs depends on what the robot was made for. A robot vacuum cleaner might use a bumper with pressure sensors to understand where a wall is. A flying robot uses a group of sensors called an inertial measurement unit (IMU) to help it stay balanced when it flies. Some of the sensors used by robots are very different from the kinds of sensors used by people. Second, a robot has actuators that allow it to move around. We might use our legs and feet to walk and run, and we might use our hands to pick up an orange and peel it. A robot might use actuators such as motors and wheels to drive places, and finger-like grippers to grab objects and manipulate them or turn them around. Third, a robot needs a program that lets it act on its own based on what it is sensing. This ability to act on one’s own is called autonomy. Let’s look at this idea of autonomy more closely. Autonomy Can you think of anything that has autonomy? People have autonomy, because they can decide for themselves how to behave or move—at least most of the time! Your toaster, your washing machine, or a remote-controlled toy are examples of machines that don’t have autonomy, because they depend on a person to make decisions for them. When a robot is autonomous, it’s not quite the same as a person being autonomous, because a person still has to write the computer program that tells the robot what to do. For example, when we listen to music, our brains are in charge of telling us how to move our own legs to the beat—we don’t need someone to move our legs for us! But what if we want to build a robot that can autonomously dance to a beat? What three basic things would we need?1. Sensor. We would need a microphone (sound sensor) so that the robot could hear the music.2. Actuators. We would need some actuators (like motors with wheels) so that the robot could move.3. Program. We would need to write a program that says to the robot: “When you hear the music beat, move this way.” We would also need a computer—the robot’s brain—that could process all the sensory information and run the program, and some kind of power supply (like a battery) to provide electricity to our robot. The video above shows a simple robot that has been programmed to dance autonomously when it hears music. Check out those dance moves! Some robots are more advanced than our little dancing robot. Autonomous cars, for example, have advanced sensors that allow them to measure the distance to all objects in their environment and build a 3-dimensional (3-D) map of the area. They then have an advanced program that understands the meaning of the cars, roads, and obstacles in the 3D map. Based on this understanding, the program controls the robot’s speed and steering. Other robots are being designed to help at home, explore space, or improve our efficiency at work. Whatever their purpose, each robot will need a carefully thought-out set of sensors, actuators, and programs. While robots are becoming more advanced, it’s important to understand their limitations. How can they interact with humans in a natural way? How do they adapt to the real world, which is often full of unexpected events that are hard for machines to understand? And how can we make batteries that will keep them powered for long periods and that aren’t too heavy to carry around? These are the kinds of questions that robotics experts are working hard to solve.CreditsMedia CreditsThe audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.WriterEditorNational Geographic SocietyProducersNational Geographic SocietySamantha Zuhlke, National Geographic SocietyotherLast UpdatedOctober 19, 2023User PermissionsFor information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.MediaIf a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.TextText on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.InteractivesAny interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.Related ResourcesSponsorNational Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036ABOUTNational Geographic SocietyNatGeo.comNews and ImpactContact UsExploreOur ExplorersOur ProgramsEducationNat Geo LiveStorytellers CollectiveTraveling ExhibitionsJoin UsWays to GiveApply for a GrantCareersdonateget updatesConnectNational Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. © 1996 - 2024 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.Privacy Notice|Sustainability Policy|Terms of Service|Code of Eth

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Robots

by Chris Woodford. Last updated: January 20, 2022.

If you had a big enough construction set with

enough wheels, gears, and other bits and bobs, and a limitless supply of electronic components, could you bolt together a living, breathing, walking, talking robot as good as a human in every way?

That might sound like one question, but it's really several.

First, there's the matter of whether it's technically

possible to build a robot that compares with a human. But there's

also a much bigger question of why you'd want to do that and

whether it's even a useful thing to do. When humans can reproduce

so easily, why do we want to create clunky mechanical replicas of

ourselves? And if there really is a good reason for doing so, what's

the best way to go about it? In this article, we'll be taking

a detailed look at what robots are, how they're designed, and some

of the things they can do for us.

Photo: Our friends electric. Will robots replace

people in the future? Or will people and machines merge into flesh-machine hybrids

that combine the best of both worlds?

For all we know, Octavia (pictured here) is pondering these questions right now. She's an advanced social robot who can scuttle around on her wheels, pick up

objects, and pull a variety of emotional faces. Her biggest challenge

so far has been helping to

put out fires.

Photo by John F. Williams courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons.

The robotics revolution is here, and it's changing how we live

Skip to contentNewslettersSubscribeMenuPremiumMAGAZINEThe robot revolution has arrivedMachines now perform all sorts of tasks: They clean big stores, patrol borders, and help children with autism. But will they improve our lives?With a firm yet delicate grip, a robot hand at the Robotics and Biology Laboratory at the Technical University of Berlin picks up a flower with its pneumatic fingers. Recent advances have brought robots closer than ever to mimicking human abilities.ByDavid BerrebyPhotographs bySpencer LowellAugust 18, 2020•40 min readThis story appears in the September 2020 issue of National Geographic magazine.If you’re like most people, you’ve probably never met a robot. But you will.I met one on a windy, bright day last January, on the short-grass prairie near Colorado’s border with Kansas, in the company of a rail-thin 31-year-old from San Francisco named Noah Ready-Campbell. To the south, wind turbines stretched to the horizon in uneven ranks, like a silent army of gleaming three-armed giants. In front of me was a hole that would become the foundation for another one.A Caterpillar 336 excavator was digging that hole—62 feet in diameter, with walls that slope up at a 34-degree angle, and a floor 10 feet deep and almost perfectly level. The Cat piled the dug-up earth on a spot where it wouldn’t get in the way; it would start a new pile when necessary. Every dip, dig, raise, turn, and drop of the 41-ton machine required firm control and well-tuned judgment. In North America, skilled excavator operators earn as much as $100,000 a year.The seat in this excavator, though, was empty. The operator lay on the cab’s roof. It had no hands; three snaky black cables linked it directly to the excavator’s control system. It had no eyes or ears either, since it used lasers, GPS, video cameras, and gyroscope-like sensors that estimate an object’s orientation in space to watch over its work. Ready-Campbell, co-founder of a San Francisco company called Built Robotics, clomped across the coarse dirt, climbed onto the excavator, and lifted the lid of a fancy luggage carrier on the roof. Inside was his company’s product—a 200-pound device that does work that once required a human being.“This is where the AI runs,” he said, pointing into the collection of circuit boards, wires, and metal boxes that made up the machine: Sensors to tell it where it is, cameras to let it see, controllers to send its commands to the excavator, communication devices that allow humans to monitor it, and the processor where its artificial intelligence, or AI, makes the decisions a human driver would. “These control signals get passed down to the computers that usually respond to the joysticks and pedals in the cab.”Some roboticists believe people are more comfortable around robots that look like Curi, from the Socially Intelligent Machines Lab at Georgia Tech. If a robot seems too much like a human, they say, people’s acceptance can plummet into “the uncanny valley,” Masahiro Mori’s term for our feelings when a robot seems less like an enhanced machine and more like a disturbingly diminished human—or a corpse.

Others create machines that imitate humans in detail—like Harmony, an expressive talking head that attaches to a silicone and steel sex doll made by Abyss Creations in San Marcos, California.

When I was a child in the 20th century, hoping to encounter a robot when I grew up, I expected it would look and act human, like C-3PO from Star Wars. Instead, the real robots that were being set up in factories were very different. Today millions of these industrial machines bolt, weld, paint, and do other repetitive, assembly-line tasks. Often fenced off to keep the remaining human workers safe, they are what roboticist Andrea Thomaz at the University of Texas has called “mute and brute” behemoths.Ready-Campbell’s device isn’t like that (although the Cat did have the words “CAUTION Robotic Equipment Moves Without Warning” stamped on its side). And of course it isn’t like C-3PO, either. It is, instead, a new kind of robot, far from human but still smart, adept, and mobile. Once rare, these devices—designed to “live” and work with people who have never met a robot—are migrating steadily into daily life.Already, in 2020, robots take inventory and clean floors in Walmart. They shelve goods and fetch them for mailing in warehouses. They cut lettuce and pick apples and even raspberries. They help autistic children socialize and stroke victims regain the use of their limbs. They patrol borders and, in the case of Israel’s Harop drone, attack targets they deem hostile. Robots arrange flowers, perform religious ceremonies, do stand-up comedy, and serve as sexual partners.New technology lets robots cope with the constant change and irregular shapes that humans encounter at work. Foodly, a collaborative robot (cobot) developed by RT Corporation, uses advanced vision, algorithms, and a grasping hand to place pieces of chicken in a bento box.And that was before the COVID-19 pandemic. Suddenly, replacing people with robots—an idea majorities of people around the world dislike, according to polls—looks medically wise, if not essential. (Read more about the skyrocketing demand for robots during the pandemic.)Robots now deliver food in Milton Keynes, England, tote supplies in a Dallas hospital, disinfect patients’ rooms in China and Europe, and wander parks in Singapore, nagging pedestrians to maintain social distance.This past spring, in the middle of a global economic collapse, the robotmakers I’d contacted in 2019, when I started working on this article, said they were getting more, not fewer, inquiries from potential customers. The pandemic has made more people realize that “automation is going to be a part of work,” Ready-Campbell told me in May. “The driver of that had been efficiency and productivity, but now there’s this other layer to it, which is health and safety.”Even before the COVID crisis added its impetus, technological trends were accelerating the creation of robots that could fan out into our lives. Mechanical parts got lighter, cheaper, and sturdier. Electronics packed more computing power into smaller packages. Breakthroughs let engineers put powerful data-crunching tools into robot bodies. Better digital communications let them keep some robot “brains” in a computer elsewhere—or connect a simple robot to hundreds of others, letting them share a collective intelligence, like a beehive’s.The workplace of the near future “will be an ecosystem of humans and robots working together to maximize efficiency,” said Ahti Heinla, co-founder of the Skype internet-call platform, now co-founder and chief technology officer of Starship Technologies, whose six-wheeled, self-driving delivery robots are rolling around Milton Keynes and other cities in Europe and the United States.Robots take inventory and clean at big stores. They patrol borders, perform religious ceremonies, and help autistic children.“We’ve gotten used to having machine intelligence that we can carry around with us,” said Manuela Veloso, an AI roboticist at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh. She held up her smartphone. “Now we’re going to have to get used to intelligence that has a body and moves around without us.”Outside her office, her team’s “cobots”—collaborative robots—roam the halls, guiding visitors and delivering paperwork. They look like iPads on wheeled display stands. But they move about on their own, even taking elevators when they need to (they beep and flash a polite request to nearby humans to push the buttons for them).“It’s an inevitable fact that we are going to have machines, artificial creatures, that will be a part of our daily life,” Veloso said. “When you start accepting robots around you, like a third species, along with pets and humans, you want to relate to them.”We’re all going to have to figure out how. “People have to understand that this isn’t science fiction; it’s not something that’s going to happen 20 years from now,” Veloso said. “It’s started to happen.”Vidal Pérez likes his new co-worker.ANYmal, a robot that can climb stairs, step delicately over debris, or crawl through tight spaces, strolls on a street near the offices of its maker, ANYbotics, in Zurich, Switzerland. Unlike wheeled robots, legged devices such as ANYmal can go almost anywhere people can— and places where they can’t, like areas contaminated by radioactive or chemical wastes.For seven years, working for Taylor Farms in Salinas, California, the 34-year-old used a seven-inch knife to cut lettuce. Bending at the waist, over and over, he would slice off a head of romaine or iceberg, shear off imperfect leaves, and toss it into a bin.Since 2016, though, a robot has done the slicing. It’s a 28-foot-long, tractorlike harvester that moves steadily down the rows in a cloud of mist from the high-pressure water jet it uses to cut off a lettuce head every time its sensor detects one. The cut lettuce falls onto a sloped conveyor belt that carries it up to the harvester’s platform, where a team of about 20 workers sorts it into bins.I met Pérez early one morning in June 2019, as he took a break from working a 22-acre field of romaine destined for Taylor’s fast-food and grocery store customers. A couple hundred yards away, another crew of lettuce cutters hunched over the plants, knives flashing as they worked in the old pre-robot style.“This is better, because you get a lot more tired cutting lettuce with a knife than with this machine,” Pérez said. Riding on the robot, he rotates bins on the conveyor belt. Not all the workers prefer the new system, he said. “Some people want to stay with what they know. And some get bored with standing on the machine, since they’re used to moving all the time through a field.”Some humans make use of wearable robots, or exoskeletons—combinations of sensors, computers, and motors. Arms with hooks attached, demonstrated by Sarcos Robotics engineer Fletcher Garrison, can lift up to 200 pounds—perhaps as an aid to airport luggage handlers.

Yukio Taguchi, a 59-year-old paraplegic, wears HAL (Hybrid Assistive Limb), developed by Cyberdyne. Taguchi was a surfer and snowboarder for more than 30 years. After a spinal cord injury, he began to train with HAL two times a month at Tsukuba Robocare Center in Tsukuba, Japan.

Grasping objects and manipulating them are crucial skills for robots that work with people. Human hands are more sensitive and nimble than any robot’s, but machines are improving. Using fingers inflated with compressed air to mimic a human hand’s soft touch, this robot at the Technical University of Berlin picks up an apple.Taylor Farms is one of the first major California agricultural companies to invest in robotic farming. “We’re going through a generational change … in agriculture,” Taylor Farms California president Mark Borman told me while we drove from the field in his pickup. As older workers leave, younger people aren’t choosing to fill the backbreaking jobs. A worldwide turn toward restrictions on cross-border migration, accelerated by COVID fears, hasn’t helped either. Farming around the world is being roboticized, Borman said. “We’re growing, our workforce is shrinking, so robots present an opportunity that’s good for both of us.”It was a refrain I heard often last year from employers in farming and construction, manufacturing and health care: We’re giving tasks to robots because we can’t find people to do them.At the wind farm site in Colorado, executives from the Mortenson Company, a Minneapolis-based construction firm that has hired Built’s robots since 2018, told me about a dire shortage of skilled workers in their industry. Built robots dug 21 foundations at the wind farm.“Operators will say things like, Oh, hey, here come the job killers,” said Derek Smith, lean innovation manager for Mortenson. “But after they see that the robot takes away a lot of repetitive work and they still have plenty to do, that shifts pretty quickly.”Once the robot excavator finished the dig we’d watched, a human on a bulldozer smoothed out the work and made ramps. “On this job, we have 229 foundations, and every one is basically the same spec,” Smith said. “We want to take away tasks that are repetitive. Then our operators concentrate on the tasks that involve more art.”The pandemic’s tsunami of job losses hasn’t changed this outlook, robotmakers and users told me. “Even with a very high unemployment rate, you can’t just snap your fingers and fill jobs that need highly specialized skills, because we don’t have the people that have the training,” said Ben Wolff, chairman and CEO of Sarcos Robotics.The Utah-based firm makes wearable robots called exoskeletons, which add the strength and precision of a machine to a worker’s movements. Delta Air Lines had just begun to test a Sarcos device with aircraft mechanics when the pandemic decimated air travel.When I reached Wolff last spring, he was upbeat. “There is a short-term slowdown, but long term we expect more business,” he said.Most employers are now looking to reduce contact among employees, and a device that lets one do the work of two might help. Since the pandemic began, Wolff told me, Sarcos has seen a jump in inquiries, some from companies he didn’t expect—for example, a major electronics firm, a pharmaceutical company, a meat-packer. The electronics- and pillmakers wanted to move heavy supplies with fewer people. The meat-packer was interested in spreading out its crowded workers.The RBO Hand 3 uses compressed air in its silicone fingers. When the robot grasps an apple, a flower, or a human hand, the fingers naturally take the shape of the thing grasped. The physics of the situation allows versatility. This “soft robotics” approach to design can create cheaper, more versatile machines—which humans will like. “People are more comfortable with humanlike robot hands,” says roboticist Steffen Puhlmann.

In a world that now fears human contact, it won’t be easy to fill jobs caring for children or the elderly. Maja Matarić, a computer scientist and roboticist at the University of Southern California, develops “socially assistive robots”—machines that do social support rather than physical labor. One of her lab’s projects, for example, is a robot coach that leads an elderly user through an exercise routine, then encourages the human to go outside and walk.“It says, ‘I can’t go outside, but why don’t you take a walk and tell me about it?’” Matarić told me. The robot is a white plastic head, torso, and arms that sits atop a rolling metal stand. But its sensors and software allow it to do some of what a human coach would do—for example, saying, “Bend your left forearm inward a little,” during exercise, or “Nice job!” afterward.We walked around her lab—a warren of young people in cubicles, working on the technologies that might let a robot help keep the conversation going in a support group, for example, or respond in a way that makes a human feel like the machine is empathizing. I asked Matarić if people ever got creeped out at the thought of a machine watching over Grandpa.“We’re not replacing caregivers,” she said. “We’re filling a gap. Grown-up children can’t be there with elderly parents. And the people who take care of other people in this country are underpaid and underappreciated. Until that changes, using robots is what we’ll have to do.”Days after I visited Matarić’s lab, in a different world 20 miles due south of the university, hundreds of longshoremen were marching against robots. This was in the San Pedro section of Los Angeles, where container cranes tower over a landscape of warehouses and docks and modest residential streets. Generations of people in this tight-knit community have worked as longshoremen on the docks. The current generation didn’t like a plan to bring robot cargo handlers to the port’s largest terminal, even though such machines already are common in ports worldwide, including others in the Los Angeles area.Designers shape each robot according to its duties—and the needs of people it works with. The five-foot-nine-inch, 222-pound HRP-5P, developed at Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, has arms, legs, and a head and handles heavy loads in places such as construction sites and shipyards.

In contrast, SQ-2, a security robot, is limbless and quietly unassuming at slightly more than four feet tall and 143 pounds. Its shape accommodates a 360-degree camera, a laser mapping system, and a computer that allows the robot to patrol on its own.

The dockworkers don’t expect the world to stop changing, said Joe Buscaino, who represents San Pedro on the Los Angeles City Council. San Pedro has gone through economic upheavals before, as fishing, canning, and shipbuilding boomed and busted. The problem with robots, Buscaino told me, is the speed with which employers are dropping them into workers’ lives.“Years ago my dad saw that fishing was coming to an end, so he got a job in a bakery,” he said. “He was able to transition. But automation has the ability to take jobs overnight.”Economists disagree a great deal about how much and how soon robots will affect future jobs. But many experts do agree on one thing: Some workers will have a much harder time adapting to robots.“The evidence is fairly clear that we have many, many fewer blue-collar production jobs, assembly jobs, in industries that are adopting robots,” said Daron Acemoglu, an economist at MIT who has studied the effects of robots and other automation. “That doesn’t mean that future technology cannot create jobs. But the notion that we’re going to adopt automation technologies left, right, and center and also create lots of jobs is a purposefully misleading and incorrect fantasy.”For all the optimism of investors, researchers, and entrepreneurs at start-ups, many people, such as Buscaino, worry about a future full of robots. They fear robots won’t take over just grunt work but the whole job, or at least the parts of it that are challenging, honorable—and well paid. (The latter process is prevalent enough that economists have a name for it: “de-skilling.”) People also fear robots will make work more stressful, perhaps even more dangerous.Pound, a robot made by Kawada Robotics, helps assemble change dispensers at a Glory factory in Kazo, Japan. Each robot is part of a human-robot team that works together to build the product.Beth Gutelius, an urban planner and economist at the University of Illinois at Chicago who has researched the warehouse industry, told me about one warehouse she visited after it introduced robots. The robots were quickly delivering goods to humans for packing, and this was saving the workers a lot of walking back and forth. It also made them feel rushed and eliminated their chance to speak to one another.You May Also LikeMAGAZINEThis ‘SmartBird’ Is the Next Thing in Drone TechHISTORY MAGAZINEMedieval robots? They were just one of this Muslim inventor's creationsSCIENCEThe uncanny valley, explained: Why you might find AI creepyEmployers should consider that this kind of stress on employees “is not healthy, and it’s real, and it has impacts on the well-being of the workers,” said Dawn Castillo, an epidemiologist who manages occupational robot research at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health at the CDC. The Center for Occupational Robotics Research actually expects robot-related deaths “will likely increase over time,” according to its website. This is because there are more robots in more places with each passing year, but also because robots are working in new settings—where they meet people who don’t know what to expect and situations that their designers didn’t necessarily anticipate.In San Pedro, after Buscaino won a city council vote to block the automation plan, the International Longshore and Warehouse Union negotiated what the union’s local chapter president called a “bittersweet” deal with Maersk, the Danish conglomerate that operates the container terminal. The dockworkers agreed to end the fight against robots in exchange for 450 mechanics getting “upskilled”: trained to work on the robots. Another 450 workers will be “reskilled”: trained to work at new, tech-friendly jobs.How effective all that retraining will be, especially for middle-aged workers, remains to be seen, Buscaino said. A friend of his is a mechanic, whose background with cars and trucks leaves him well positioned to add robot maintenance to his skills. On the other hand, “my brother-in-law Dominic, who is a longshoreman today, he has no clue how to work on these robots. And he’s 56.”The word “robot” is precisely 100 years old this year. It was coined by the Czech writer Karel Čapek, in a play that set the template for a century’s machine dreams and nightmares. The robots in that play, R.U.R., look and act like people, do all the work of humans—and wipe out the human race before the curtain falls.Robot partners come in many forms. At Fluidics Instruments in Eindhoven, Netherlands, an employee works with seven robot arms to assemble parts for oil and gas burners. Like traditional factory robots, these cobots are efficient and precise—able to produce a thousand nozzles an hour. But unlike older machines, they adapt quickly to changed specs or a new task.

At Medical City Heart Hospital in Dallas, nurses work with Moxi, a robot built to learn and then perform tasks that take nurses away from patients, such as fetching supplies, delivering lab samples, and removing bags of soiled linens.

Ever since, imaginary robots from the Terminator to Japan’s Astro Boy to those Star Wars droids have had a huge influence on the plans of robotmakers. They also have shaped the public’s expectations of what robots are and what they can do.Tensho Goto is a monk in the Rinzai school of Japanese Zen Buddhism. A vigorous, sturdy man with a cheerful manner, Goto met me in a spare, elegant room at Kodai-ji, the 17th-century temple in Kyoto where he is the chief steward. He seemed the picture of tradition. Yet he has been dreaming of robots for many years. It began decades ago, when he read about artificial minds and thought about reproducing the Buddha himself in silicone, plastic, and metal. With android versions of the sages, he said, Buddhists could “hear their words directly.”Once he began collaborating with roboticists at Osaka University, though, robot reality dampened the robot dream. He learned that “as AI technology exists today, it is impossible to create human intelligence, let alone the personages of those who have attained enlightenment.” But like many roboticists, he didn’t give up, instead settling for what is possible today.It stands at one end of a white-walled room on the temple grounds: a metal and silicone incarnation of Kannon, the deity who in Japanese Buddhism embodies compassion and mercy. For centuries, temples and shrines have used statues to attract people and get them to focus on Buddhist tenets. “Now, for the first time, a statue moves,” Goto said.Mindar, as the robot is called, delivers prerecorded sermons in a forceful, not-quite-human female voice, gently gesticulating with her arms and turning her head from side to side to survey the audience. When her eyes fall on you, you feel something—but it isn’t her intelligence. There is no AI in Mindar. Goto hopes that will change over time, and that his moving statue will become capable of holding conversations with people and answering their religious questions.Robot soccer players have been taking the field since 1996 as part of an international league called Robo-Cup. Pitting the robot teams against one another in local, regional, and world championships is part fun and part research for roboticists around the world—even though humans will remain better at the game for decades to come. Here, Ishan Durugkar, a Ph.D. student in computer science at the University of Texas, prepares to put his school’s squad, the UT Austin Villa robot soccer team, through some drills.

Across the Pacific, in a nondescript house in a quiet suburb of San Diego, I met a man who seeks to provide a different kind of intimate experience with robots. Artist Matt McMullen is CEO of a company called Abyss Creations, which makes realistic, life-size sex dolls. McMullen leads a team of programmers, robotics specialists, special-effects experts, engineers, and artists who create robot companions that can appeal to hearts and minds as well as sex organs.The company has made silicone-skin, steel-skeleton RealDolls for more than a decade. They go for about $4,000. But these days, for an additional $8,000, a customer receives a robotic head packed with electronics that power facial expressions, a voice, and an artificial intelligence that can be programmed via a smartphone app.Like Siri or Alexa, the doll’s AI gets to know the user via the commands and questions he or she gives it. Below the neck, for now, the robot is still a doll—its arms and legs move only when the user manipulates them.“We don’t today have a real artificial intelligence that resembles a human mind,” McMullen acknowledges. “But I think we will. I think that is inevitable.” He has no doubt the market is there. “I think there are people who can greatly benefit from robots that look like people,” he said.We are getting attached already to ones that don’t look much like us at all.This isn’t science fiction. It’s not something that’s going to happen 20 years from now. It’s started.Manuela Veloso, Carnegie Mellon AI roboticistMilitary units have held funerals for bomb-clearing robots blown up in action. Nurses in hospitals tease their robot colleagues. People in experiments have declined to rat out their robot teammates. As robots get more lifelike, people probably will invest them with even more affection and trust—too much, perhaps. The influence of fantasy robots leads people to think that today’s real machines are far more capable than they really are. Adapting well to their presence among us, experts told me, must start with realistic expectations.Robots can be programmed or trained to do a well-defined task—dig a foundation, harvest lettuce—better or at least more consistently than humans can. But none can equal the human mind’s ability to do a lot of different tasks, especially unexpected ones. None has yet mastered common sense.Today’s robots can’t match human hands either, said Chico Marks, a manufacturing engineering manager at Subaru’s auto plant in Lafayette, Indiana. The plant, like those of all carmakers, has used standard industrial robots for decades. It’s now gradually adding new types, for tasks such as moving self-guided carts that take parts around the plant. Marks showed me a combination of wires that would snake through a curving section near a future car’s rear door.“Routing a wiring harness into a vehicle is not something that lends itself well to automation,” Marks said. “It requires a human brain and tactile feedback to know it’s in the right place and connected.”Robot legs aren’t any better. In 1996 Veloso, the Carnegie Mellon AI roboticist, was part of a challenge to create robots that would play soccer better than humans by 2050. She was one of a group of researchers that year who created the RoboCup tournament to spur progress. Today RoboCup is a well-loved tradition for engineers on several continents, but no one, including Veloso, expects robots to play soccer better than humans anytime soon.“It’s crazy how sophisticated our bodies are as machines,” she said. “We’re very good at handling gravity, dealing with forces as we walk, being pushed and keeping our balance. It’s going to be many years before a bipedal robot can walk as well as a person.”Through “tele-operation”—controlling a robot remotely via computer, smartphone, or even just eye movements—robots that navigate human spaces have expanded opportunities for people who are disabled. Though her mobility is limited by a neuromuscular disorder, Nozomi Murata, 34, works as a secretary in a Tokyo office via an OriHime robot created by OryLab. She tele-operates the robot from her home elsewhere in the city.

In the Minato City section of Tokyo, Murata’s tele-operated OriHime robot greets its inventor, Kentaro Yoshifuji, co-founder and CEO of OryLaboratory, which makes the robot. Yoshifuji created the device to alleviate loneliness by giving people a robotic means to connect directly with one another.

Robots are not going to be artificial people. We need to adapt to them, as Veloso said, as to a different species—and most robotmakers are working hard to engineer robots that make allowances for our human feelings. At the wind farm site, I learned that “bouncing” the toothed bucket of a big excavator against the ground is a sign of inexperience in a human operator. (The resulting jolt can actually injure the person in the cab.) To a robot excavator, the bounce makes little difference. Yet Built Robotics changed its robot’s algorithms to avoid bounce, because it looks bad to human professionals, and Mortenson wants workers of all species to get along.It’s not just people who change as robots come on line. Taylor Farms, Borman told me, is working on a new light bulb–shaped lettuce with a longer stalk. It won’t taste or feel different; that shape is just easier for a robot to cut.Bossa Nova Robotics makes a robot that roams thousands of stores in North America, including 500 Walmarts, scanning shelves to track inventory. The firm’s engineers asked themselves how friendly and approachable their robot should look. In the end it looks like a portable air conditioner with a six-and-a-half-foot-high periscope attached—no face or eyes.“It’s a tool,” explained Sarjoun Skaff, Bossa Nova’s co-founder and chief technology officer. He and the other engineers wanted shoppers and workers to like the machine, but not too much. Too industrial or too strange, and shoppers would flee. Too friendly, and people would chat and play with it and slow down its work. In the long run, Skaff told me, robots and people will settle on “a common set of human-robot interaction conventions” that will enable humans to know “how to interpret what the robot is doing and how to behave around it.” But for now, robotmakers and ordinary people are feeling their way there.Outside Tokyo, at the factory of Glory, a maker of money-handling devices, I stopped at a workstation where a nine-member team was assembling a coin-change machine. A plastic-sheathed sheet of paper displayed photos and names of three women, two men, and four robots.The gleaming white, two-armed robots, which looked a little like the offspring of a refrigerator and WALL·E, were named after currencies. As I watched the team swiftly add parts to a coin changer, a robot named Dollar needed help a couple of times—once when it couldn’t peel the backing off a sticker. A red light near its station went on, and a human quickly left his own spot on the line to fix the problem.Dollar has cameras on its “wrists,” but it also has a head with two camera eyes. “Conceptually it is meant to be a human-shaped robot,” explained manager Toshifumi Kobayashi. “So it has a head.”That little accommodation didn’t immediately convince the real humans, said Shota Akasaka, 32, a boyish and smiling team leader. “I was really not sure that it would be able to do human work, that it would be able to screw in a screw,” he said. “When I saw the screw go in perfectly, I realized we were at the dawn of a new era.”In a conference room northeast of Tokyo, I learned what it’s like to work with a robot in the closest way: by wearing it.A harvesting robot developed by Abundant Robotics uses suction to pick apples off trees in an orchard in Grandview, Washington. Robots increasingly are able to do agricultural tasks that once required the dexterity and precision of human hands. That’s a boon for farms coping with a shortage of human labor.Every hour at Nursery Waalzicht in Poederoijen, Netherlands, three robots made by ISO Group plant 18,000 flower plugs—seedlings that have just begun to grow—supervised by a single human worker.At Henri Willig farm in Katwoude, Netherlands, a cow decides to enter a Lely Astronaut A4 robot. When the animal walks up, the robot scans her collar and gives her a treat if she’s right about needing to be milked (if she’s not, she gets no treat and walks on). The machine does the milking automatically. Farmers monitor production and give the robot instructions via a touchpad.The exoskeleton, manufactured by a Japanese firm called Cyberdyne, consisted of two connected white tubes that curved across my back, a belt at my waist, and two straps on my thighs. It felt like being strapped into a parachute or an amusement park ride. I bent at the waist to lift a 40-pound container of water, which should have hurt my lower back. Instead, a computer in the tubes used the change in position to deduce that I was lifting an object, and motors kicked in to assist me. (More advanced users would have worn electrodes so the device could read the signals their brain was sending to their muscles.)The robot was designed to assist only my back muscles; when I squatted and put the effort into my legs, as you’re supposed to, the device didn’t help much. Still, when it worked, it seemed like a magic trick—I felt the weight, then I didn’t.Cyberdyne sees a large market in medical rehabilitation; it also makes a lower-limb exoskeleton that is being used to help people regain the use of their own legs. For many of its products, “another market will be for workers, so they can work longer and without risking injuries,” Cyberdyne spokesman Yudai Katami said.Sarcos Robotics, the other maker of exoskeletons, is thinking along similar lines. One purpose of his devices, said CEO Wolff, was “allowing humans to be more productive so they can keep up with the machines that enable automation.”Robots can do well-defined tasks, but none has mastered humans’ ability to multitask or use common sense.Will we adapt to the machines more than they adapt to us? We might be asked to. Roboticists dream of machines that make life better, but companies sometimes have incentives to install robots that don’t. Robots, after all, don’t need paid vacations or medical insurance. Beyond that, many nations get a lot of tax revenue from labor, while encouraging automation with tax breaks and other incentives. Companies thus save money by cutting employees and adding robots.“You get a lot of subsidies for installing equipment, especially digital equipment and robots,” Acemoglu said. “So that encourages firms to go for machines rather than humans, even if machines are no better.” Robots also are just more exciting than mere humans.There is “a particular zeitgeist among many technologists and managers that humans are troublesome,” Acemoglu said. There’s this feeling of, “You don’t need them. They make mistakes. They make demands. Let’s go for automation.”After Noah Ready-Campbell decided to go into construction robots, his father, Scott Campbell, spent more than three hours on a car ride gently asking him if this was really such a good idea. The elder Campbell, who used to work in construction himself, now represents the town of St. Johnsbury in Vermont’s general assembly. He quickly came to believe in his son’s work, but his constituents worry about robots, he told me, and it’s not all about economics. Perhaps it will be possible to give all our work to robots someday—even the work of religious ministry, even “sex work.” But Campbell’s constituents want to keep something for humanity: the work that makes humans feel valued.Mindar—a robotic incarnation of Kannon, the deity of mercy and compassion in Japanese Buddhism—faces Tensho Goto, a monk at the Kodaiji temple in Kyoto, Japan. Mindar, created by a team led by roboticist Hiroshi Ishiguro of Osaka University, can recite Buddhist teachings.

“What is important about work is not what you get for it but what you become by doing it,” Campbell said. “I feel like it’s profoundly true. That’s the most important thing about doing a job.”A century after they were first dreamed up for the stage, real robots are making life easier and safer for some people. They’re also making it a bit more robot-like. For many companies, that’s part of the attraction.“Right now every construction site is different, and every operator is an artist,” said Gaurav Kikani, Built Robotics’ vice president for strategy, operations, and finance. Operators like the variety; employers not so much. They save time and money when they know that a task is done the same way every time and doesn’t depend on an individual’s decisions. Though construction sites will always need human adaptability and ingenuity for some tasks, “with robots we see an opportunity to standardize practices and create efficiencies for the tasks where robots are appropriate,” Kikani said.In the moments when someone has to decide whose preferences ought to prevail, technology itself has no answers. However far they advance, there’s one task that robots won’t help us solve: Deciding how, when, and where to use them.David Berreby’s feature “The Things That Divide Us” appeared in the special Race Issue, April 2018. Photographer Spencer Lowell documented the construction of the Mars Curiosity rover for NASA.5:47Related TopicsROBOTSDRONESENGINEERINGINNOVATIONMACHINERYYou May Also LikeHISTORY & CULTUREHidden details from the Battle of the Bulge come to lightSCIENCEThis 'Gate to Hell' has burned for decades. Will we ever shut it?HISTORY & CULTUREIn 1969, the U.S. turned off Niagara Falls. 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What Is a Robot? | WIRED

Is a Robot? | WIREDSkip to main contentOpen Navigation MenuMenuStory SavedTo revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories.Close AlertWhat Is a Robot?SecurityPoliticsGearBackchannelBusinessScienceCultureIdeasMerchMoreChevronStory SavedTo revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories.Close AlertSign InSearchSearchSecurityPoliticsGearBackchannelBusinessScienceCultureIdeasMerchPodcastsVideoWired WorldArtificial IntelligenceClimateGamesNewslettersMagazineEventsWIRED InsiderJobsCouponsMatt SimonScienceAug 24, 2017 7:00 AMWhat Is a Robot?Introducing "HardWIRED: Welcome to the Robotic Future," a new video series in which we explore the many fascinating machines that are transforming society.Save this storySaveSave this storySaveEditor’s note: This is the first entry in a new video series, HardWIRED: Welcome to the Robotic Future, in which we explore the many fascinating machines that are transforming society. And we can’t do that without first defining what a robot even is.When you hear the word “robot,” the first thing that probably comes to mind is a silvery humanoid, à la The Day the Earth Stood Still or C-3PO (more golden, I guess, but still metallic). But there’s also the Roomba, and autonomous drones, and technically also self-driving cars. A robot can be a lot of things these days―and this is just the beginning of their proliferation.With so many different kinds of robots, how do you define what one is? It's a physical thing―engineers agree on that, at least. But ask three different roboticists to define a robot and you’ll get three different answers. This isn't a trivial semantic conundrum: Thinking about what a robot really is has implications for how humanity deals with the unfolding robo-revolution.I’d like you to think about two drones. One you have to pilot yourself, and the other is autonomous, taking off, navigating obstacles, and landing all on its own. Are these both robots? Nope.“I would say that a robot is a physically embodied artificially intelligent agent that can take actions that have effects on the physical world,” says roboticist Anca Dragan of UC Berkeley. According to that definition, a robot has to make decisions that in turn make it useful―that is, avoiding things like running itself into trees. So your dumb, cheapo RC quadcopter is no more a robot than an RC car. An autonomous drone, however, is a thinking agent that senses and interacts with its world. It’s a robot.Intelligence, then, is a core component of what makes a robot a robot and not a wind-up toy. Kate Darling, a roboticist at the MIT Media Lab, agrees. “My definition of a robot, given that there is no very good universal definition, would probably be a physical machine that's usually programmable by a computer that can execute tasks autonomously or automatically by itself,” she says. “What a lot of people tend to follow is this sense, think, act paradigm." An RC drone can act, but only because you order it to. It can’t sense its environment or think about its next action. An autonomous drone, however, can do all three. It’s a physical embodiment of an artificial intelligence.Just how intelligent does a machine have to be to qualify as a robot, though? Lots of systems take in information from the outside world, process it, and then output an action—take the autopilot software that flies commercial planes. Hanumant Singh, a roboticist at Northeastern University, says a robot is "a system that exhibits 'complex' behavior and includes sensing and actuation.” He gives that definition to his students, then asks them to consider whether a Boeing 747 fits the bill. "It is automated, it is complex, it has sensing, it has actuation," he says. "The students argue that it is not a robot because humans operate it a lot of the time, even though it has an autopilot."Most PopularPoliticsThe Kate Middleton Photo Controversy Is an Inexplicable MessBrian BarrettScienceSolar-Powered Farming Is Quickly Depleting the World's Groundwater SupplyFred PearceSecurityAirbnb Bans All Indoor Security CamerasAmanda HooverScienceStumped by Heat Pumps?Rhett AllainAlso confusing are swallowable, magnetic "origami bots" that automatically unfold when they hit the acid of the stomach—reacting to their environment like an actually intelligent bot would. But then a human operator has to use magnets to steer them around the digestive system to pick up things that shouldn't be there, like swallowed batteries. Not so much a bot.If a machine is truly autonomous, there's a good chance it's a robot—but there are different degrees of autonomous intelligence. It's easy enough to program a machine to respond to a single environmental input with a single output. But as machine learning algorithms improve, robots will respond to their environments in ways that humans didn't explicitly teach them to. And that's the kind of intelligence that will get robots driving us around, helping the elderly, and keeping us company. “I'd say, yes, a robot is a physically embodied artificial intelligent agent," says Dragan, "but an artificially intelligent agent to me is an agent that acts to maximize a person's utility.” Meaning, new thinkier robots are more sensitive to the user's needs.To demonstrate, in her lab Dragan shows me a robotic arm her team has programmed. Grasping a mug, the arm sweeps across a table. But Dragan doesn’t want it sweeping so high, so she grabs the arm and forces it closer to the surface. But she hasn’t programmed the robot to sweep this low, so it returns to its previous altitude. Its intelligence is limited to the simple rules it's been given.The second time around, though, the arm reacts differently to Dragan’s correction. She forces it to a lower altitude and it recognizes her new demand, continuing the rest of its sweep at that level. It’s a responsive brand of robot that we’ll be seeing more of in this world. Think robots that are not only sensitive to our needs, but anticipate them. More and more, we won't need to intervene to correct robots' behavior, but will interact with robots that learn to adapt to our whims.This nuance is important, because "robot" is a powerful word. It is at once something that makes people uncomfortable (killer robots, job-stealing robots, etc.) and that makes them feel nice (Kuri the extremely endearing companion robot). “The word robot generates a lot of attention and fascination and sometimes fear,” says Darling. “You can use it to get people's attention. I mean, it's much sexier to call something a robot than call something a dishwasher.”For that matter, "robot" certainly sounds sexier than “physically embodied artificially intelligent agent.” But a robot is a machine that senses and acts on its world. And soon enough, our world will be full of them. Just probably not in, you know, a The Day the Earth Stood Still kind of way.Matt Simon is a senior staff writer covering biology, robotics, and the environment. He’s the author, most recently, of A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our Bodies.Staff WriterXTopicsroboticsMore from WIREDLos Angeles Just Proved How Spongy a City Can BeAs relentless rains pounded LA, the city’s “sponge” infrastructure helped gather 8.6 billion gallons of water—enough to sustain over 100,000 households for a year.Matt SimonGoogle’s Chess Experiments Reveal How to Boost the Power of AIBy rewarding computers that combined different approaches to solve chess puzzles, Google created an enhanced AI that could defeat its existing champion, AlphaZero.Stephen OrnesSelective Forgetting Can Help AI Learn BetterErasing key information during training allows machine learning models to learn new languages faster and more easily.Amos ZeebergSo You Want to Rewire BrainsWhen everyone's hooking their brains up to computers, we'll need surgeons to install the hardware.Caitlin KellyA Celebrated Cryptography-Breaking Algorithm Just Got an UpgradeTwo researchers have improved a well-known technique for lattice basis reduction, opening up new avenues for practical experiments in cryptography and mathematics.Madison GoldbergNeuralink’s First Brain Implant Is Working. Elon Musk’s Transparency Isn’tElon Musk says Neuralink’s first human trial subject can control a computer mouse with their brain, but some researchers are frustrated by a lack of information about the study.Emily Mullin23andMe Is Under Fire. Its Founder Remains ‘Optimistic’23andMe’s CEO Anne Wojcicki has saved the genetics company from the brink of failure before. She sat down with WIRED to talk about where it goes from here.Emily MullinFarming Prioritizes Cows and Cars—Not PeopleFarmers and scientists are getting better at growing more crops on less land, but they’re not focusing on plants that people eat.Matt ReynoldsWIRED is where tomorrow is realized. It is the essential source of information and ideas that make sense of a world in constant transformation. The WIRED conversation illuminates how technology is changing every aspect of our lives—from culture to business, science to design. The breakthroughs and innovations that we uncover lead to new ways of thinking, new connections, and new industries.More From WIREDSubscribeNewslettersFAQWIRED StaffEditorial StandardsArchiveRSSAccessibility HelpReviews and GuidesReviewsBuying GuidesCouponsMattressesElectric BikesFitness TrackersStreaming GuidesAdvertiseContact UsCustomer CareJobsPress CenterCondé Nast StoreUser AgreementPrivacy Policy & Cookie StatementYour California Privacy Rights© 2024 Condé Nast. All rights reserved. WIRED may earn a portion of sales from products that are purchased through our site as part of our Affiliate Partnerships with retailers. The material on this site may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, cached or otherwise used, except with the prior written permission of Condé Nast. Ad ChoicesSelect international siteUnited StatesLargeChevronUKItaliaJapónCzech Republic & SlovakiaFacebookXPinterestYouTubeInstagramTiktokDo Not Sell My Personal I

tokenpocket钱包下载中文版苹果|robot

tokenpocket钱包下载中文版苹果|robot

Robot - Wikipedia

Robot | Definition, History, Uses, Types, & Facts | Britannica

The Complete History And Future of Robots | WIRED

Robotics: What Are Robots? Robotics Definition & Uses. | Built In

What Is a Robot? - ROBOTS: Your Guide to the World of Robotics

Robotics - Wikipedia

What is a Robot?

How do robots work? - Explain that Stuff

The robotics revolution is here, and it's changing how we live

What Is a Robot? | WIRED

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tokenpocket钱包下载中文版苹果|robot

tokenpocket钱包下载中文版苹果|robot

Robot - Wikipedia

Robot | Definition, History, Uses, Types, & Facts | Britannica

The Complete History And Future of Robots | WIRED

Robotics: What Are Robots? Robotics Definition & Uses. | Built In

What Is a Robot? - ROBOTS: Your Guide to the World of Robotics

Robotics - Wikipedia

What is a Robot?

How do robots work? - Explain that Stuff

The robotics revolution is here, and it's changing how we live

What Is a Robot? | WIRED

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